1 Introduction 15
Wytske van der Wagen, Jan-Jaap Oerlemans & Marleen Weulen Kranenbarg
1.1 Cybercrime as a new field in criminology 15
1.2 What is cybercrime? 16
1.3 Objective of the book 18
1.4 Structure of the book 20
2 Cybercrime in a criminological perspective 21
Wytske van der Wagen, Jan-Jaap Oerlemans & Marleen Weulen Kranenbarg
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Cybercrime in historical perspective 21
2.2.1 The period 1970-1989 22
2.2.2 The period 1990-1999 24
2.2.3 The period 2000-2009 25
2.2.4 The period 2010-2021 27
2.3 Cybercrime in a theoretical perspective: the ‘old wine, new bottles’ discussion 28
2.3.1 The removal of barriers of time and space 28
2.3.2 Automation and amplification 29
2.3.3 Innovation and transformation 30
2.3.4 Social and commercial interconnectivity 30
2.3.5 Anonymity and fluidity of identity 31
2.3.6 Virtualisation and hybridisation 32
2.4 Cybercrime in a methodological perspective 33
2.4.1 Questionnaires and interviews 33
2.4.1.1 Online and offline questionnaires 33
2.4.1.2 Online and offline interviews 36
2.4.2 Online and offline participatory observation 39
2.4.2.1 Hacker forums 39
2.4.2.2 Telegram 41
2.4.2.3 Other websites 41
2.4.2.4 Dark web and criminal marketplaces 42
2.4.3 Documents and registration data 43
2.4.3.1 Registration data 43
2.4.3.2 Case law 44
2.4.3.3 Police files 45
2.4.3.4 Reports from public and private organisation 47
2.4.3.5 (Social) media content 47
2.4.4 General trends and developments in cybercrime research 48
2.5 To conclude 50
2.6 Discussion questions 50
2.7 Core concepts 51
3 Types of cybercrime and their criminalisation 53
Jan-Jaap Oerlemans & Wytske van der Wagen
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Cyber-dependent crime 53
3.2.1 Hacking 55
3.2.1.1 Computer hacking 55
3.2.1.2 Ethical hacking 58
3.2.2 Malware 59
3.2.2.1 Ransomware 60
3.2.3 Botnets 65
3.2.4 Ddos attacks 67
3.3 Cyber-enabled crime 70
3.3.1 Cyber-enabled fraud 70
3.3.2 Online drug trafficking 73
3.3.3 Money laundering and virtual currency 76
3.3.4 Online sex offences 79
3.3.4.1 Child pornography 79
3.3.4.2 Sexting 82
3.3.4.3 Grooming 83
3.3.4.4 Sextortion 85
3.3.4.5 Revenge porn 87
3.3.5 Content crimes 88
3.4 Future developments 90
3.4.1 Increased involvement of state actors 90
3.4.2 The ‘internet of things’ 91
3.4.3 The use of artificial intelligence by cybercriminals 92
3.5 To conclude 93
3.6 Discussion questions 93
3.7 Core concepts 94
4 Cyber offenders 99
Wytske van der Wagen & Marleen Weulen Kranenbarg
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Prevalence and development of cybercrime offending 100
4.2.1 Prevalence rates 100
4.2.2 Trends 102
4.3 Typologies of cyber offenders 103
4.3.1 Hacker taxonomies 104
4.3.2 General classifications of cyber offenders 106
4.3.3 Typologies targeting organised crime offenders 107
4.4 Background characteristics of cyber-dependent offenders 108
4.4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics 109
4.4.1.1 Age 109
4.4.1.2 Gender 109
4.4.1.3 Ethnicity 110
4.4.1.4 Family composition and socio-economic background 111
4.4.2 Education, work and leisure 111
4.4.2.1 Education(s) 111
4.4.2.2 Work 112
4.4.2.3 Leisure activities 113
4.4.3 Social network (offline and online) 114
4.4.4 Psychological characteristics and personality 115
4.4.4.1 Autism 115
4.4.4.2 Self-control 116
4.5 Motivations 116
4.5.1 Intellectual motivations 117
4.5.2 Sensation-related motivations 117
4.5.3 Status-related motivations 117
4.5.4 Financial motivations 118
4.5.5 Vindictive motivations 118
4.5.6 Ideological motivations 118
4.6 Contextual factors that play a role in cyber offending 119
4.6.1 Family context 119
4.6.2 School context 120
4.6.3 Social context (offline and online) 125
4.6.4 Legal context 126
4.6.5 Digital context 127
4.7 To conclude 128
4.8 Discussion questions 129
4.9 Core concepts 129
5 The organisation of cybercrime 131
Thomas J. Holt & Rutger Leukfeldt
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Assessing the nature of organised crime and cybercrime 133
5.2.1 Qualitative research on organisational structures 133
5.2.2 Quantitative research on organisational structures 135
5.3 The role and structure of online markets on cybercrime 136
5.3.1 Differentiating shops, forums and cryptomarkets 137
5.3.2 The social relationships structuring online markets 139
5.4 To conclude 140
5.5 Discussion questions 142
5.6 Core concepts 143
6 Victims of cybercrime 145
Take Sipma, Rik Beerthuizen, Wytske van der Wagen & André van der Laan
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 International developments in cybercrime victimisation 146
6.3 The extent and development of cybercrime victimisation in the Netherlands 147
6.3.1 Cybercrime victimisation among the general public 147
6.3.1.1 Malware 148
6.3.1.2 Hacking 149
6.3.1.3 Identity fraud 149
6.3.1.4 Online sales and purchase fraud 150
6.3.1.5 Online threats 150
6.3.1.6 Other forms of cybercrime 151
6.3.1.7 Shift from offline to online victimisation 152
6.3.1.8 Victimisation in police records 153
6.3.2 Cybercrime victimisation of companies and governmental institutions 154
6.4 Risk and protective factors of cybercrime victimisation 155
6.4.1 Internet use 155
6.4.2 Accessibility and protection measures 156
6.4.3 Personality traits 158
6.4.4 Socio-demographic characteristics 159
6.5 Reactions to and consequences of victimisation of cybercrime 160
6.5.1 Readiness to report 160
6.5.2 Financial and emotional consequences 160
6.5.2.1 Financial implications 160
6.5.2.2 Emotional consequences 161
6.5.3 Change in online activities 163
6.6 Measures against victimisation of cybercrime 163
6.7 To conclude 165
6.8 Discussion questions 166
6.9 Core concepts 167
7 Criminological theories and cybercrime 169
Marleen Weulen Kranenbarg & Wytske van der Wagen
7.1 Introduction 169
7.2 Classical criminological theories and their applicability to cybercrime 170
7.2.1 Routine activity theory 170
7.2.1.1 Opportunity theories 170
7.2.1.2 Suitable target 171
7.2.1.3 Absence of capable guardianship 172
7.2.1.4 Convergence in time and space 173
7.2.2 Social control theory 174
7.2.3 Social learning theory 175
7.2.3.1 Differential association 176
7.2.3.2 Deviant definitions 176
7.2.3.3 Imitation 177
7.2.3.4 Differential reinforcement 177
7.2.4 Neutralisation techniques 178
7.2.5 Strain theory 179
7.2.6 Labelling theory 181
7.3 Criminological theories and organised cybercrime 183
7.3.1 How organised and digital are cybercriminal networks? 183
7.3.2 Pros and cons of online collaboration, a unique opportunity? 185
7.4 Cybercriminological concepts and approaches 186
7.4.1 Online disinhibition 186
7.4.1.1 Distinguising the online from the offline self 188
7.4.2 Digital drift 189
7.4.3 Affordance theory 190
7.4.4 Cyborg crime and actor-network theory 192
7.5 To conclude 194
7.6 Discussion questions 195
7.7 Core concepts 195
8 Cybercrime investigations 197
Jan-Jaap Oerlemans & Maša Galič
8.1 Introduction 197
8.2 Digital investigations and criminal procedure law 198
8.2.1 Regulating investigative methods 198
8.2.2 Jurisdiction and cybercrime 203
8.3 IP addresses as digital leads 207
8.3.1 Data production and preservation orders 209
8.3.2 Seizing and analysing data on computers 217
8.3.3 Network computer searches 220
8.4 The challenge of anonymity 222
8.4.1 Proxy and VPN services 222
8.4.2 Tor 223
8.4.3 Open source investigations 225
8.4.4 Online undercover operations 228
8.5 The challenge of encryption 236
8.5.1 Encryption in storage 237
8.5.2 Encryption in transit 239
8.5.3 Hacking as an investigative method 240
8.6 Disrupting cybercrime 243
8.7 To conclude 247
8.8 Discussion questions 248
8.9 Core concepts 249
9 Interventions for cyber offenders 255
Elina van ’t Zand, Sifra Matthijsse, Tamar Fischer & Wytske van der Wagen
9.1 Introduction 255
9.2 Perspectives on interventions 256
9.2.1 Three approaches 256
9.2.2 Applicability of the approaches to cyber offenders 257
9.3 The rational choice approach 258
9.3.1 Deterrence and situational crime prevention 258
9.3.2 Reactive interventions in line with the rational choice approach 260
9.3.2.1 Incarceration 260
9.3.2.2 Financial penalties 261
9.3.3 Preventive interventions in line with the rational choice approach 262
9.3.3.1 Cease-and-desist-visits 262
9.3.3.2 Online policing 263
9.3.3.3 Education in schools 265
9.4 The What Works approach 266
9.4.1 What Works and effective treatment 266
9.4.2 Interventions in line with the What Works approach 267
9.4.2.1 Strengthening cognitive and social skills 267
9.4.2.2 Reducing pro-criminal attitudes and increasing awareness of criminality and harm 269
9.4.2.3 Manipulating criminogenic opportunity factors 270
9.4.2.4 Diversion 271
9.5 The desistance approach 272
9.5.1 Why people stop offending 272
9.5.2 Interventions in line with the desistance approach 274
9.5.2.1 Ethical hacking 274
9.5.2.2 Role models 276
9.5.2.3 Talent development 277
9.5.2.4 Career perspectives 279
9.6 To conclude 280
9.7 Discussion questions 282
9.8 Core terms 282
References 285
Index 337
Case law 347
About the authors 351
