Decriminalization of Sex Work

List of Abbreviations xiii

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 The New Zealand Sex Industry: a Brief Introduction 3
1.2 The Decriminalization Process of the New Zealand Sex Industry 4
1.3 Research Aims, Research Question and Sub Questions 6
1.4 Relevance 8
1.5 Structure of the Book 10

Chapter 2
Methodology 13
2.1 Desk Research 13
2.2 Explorative and Descriptive Research 14
2.2.1 Interviews 14
2.2.2 Observations 18
2.2.3 Recording and Analysis of Data 18
2.4 Ethical Reflections 20
2.5 Gendered ‘Power’ Relations and Reciprocity 23
2.6 Research Limitations 26
2.7 Validity, Reliability, Triangulation 26

Chapter 3
Theoretical Perspectives 29
3.1 Terminology: The Way You Perceive 29
3.2 Including or Excluding Sex Workers? 31
3.3 The Ongoing Stigma on Sex Work 32
3.4 The Stigma of Sex Workers as Victims of Human Trafficking 34
3.5 Social Movement 37
3.5.1 The Concept Social Movement 37
3.5.2 Decriminalization of the Sex Industry as a Social Movement 38

Chapter 4
Sex Industry Policies 41
4.1 State Protection or Own Agency? 41
4.2 Sex Industry Policies 43
4.2.1 Current Main Sex Industry Policies 44
4.2.2 Critical Notes on Terminology and Meaning of Sex Industry Policies 46
4.2.3 Sex Industry Morality Politics 48
4.2.4 Repressive, Restrictive, and Integrative Sex Industry Policies 50
4.2.5 Restrictive and Integrative Policies 52
4.2.5.1 Sex Industry Policies: Rule-Heavy or Rule-Light? 52
4.2.5.2 Reducing or Minimizing Harm within the Sex Industry 53
4.2.6 Repressive Policies: No Harm Reduction Strategies for Prostitutes 55
4.3 Sex Industry Policies and Collaborative Governance 56

Chapter 5
Macro Level: The Development of New Zealand’s Sex Industry: History and Context 59
5.1 Sexual Intercourse in Precolonial Maori Tradition 59
5.2 From Sex as a Gift to Sex as Commerce 61
5.2.1 Female Immigrants 64
5.3 The Nineteenth Century: From Tolerance and Regulation to Intolerance and Abolishment 64
5.3.1 From Tolerance to Regulation: Control the Women, Leave the Men 66
5.3.2 Increasing Resistance Against the Double Standards 69
5.4 The Twentieth Century: Prostitutes as Criminals 72
5.4.1 The Wheels for Change Start in Motion 75
5.5 “Decriminalization, Nothing Else” 75

Chapter 6
Meso Level: The Path to Decriminalization 79
6.1 “We All Have the Same Accent”: Fairness, Equity, and Justice 79
6.2 New Zealand: Inclusive or Exclusive Society? 82
6.3 Sociopolitical Backgrounds 83
6.3.1 The HIV/AIDS Epidemic 83
6.3.2 The Preparedness of Academics and Other Parties to Step In 85
6.3.3 The Parliamentary Process Towards Decriminalization 87
6.3.3.1 From First-Past-The-Post to Mixed-Member-Proportional 88
6.3.3.2 From Unawareness to Awareness 88
6.3.3.3 A Conscience Vote Instead of a Party Vote 89
6.3.3.4 Political Arguments Behind Voting for PRA 93
6.3.4 The Role of the Media 95
6.4 Working in a Decriminalized Environment: The Sex Workers’ Views 97
6.4.1 Health, Safety, and Self-Determination 99

Chapter 7
Micro Level: An Analysis of the Role and Impact of NZPC 109
7.1 ‘They Are Somebody Here’. Eight Distinguishing Factors 110
7.2 Sex Workers’ Voice about NZPC 126
7.2.1 NZPC as Sex Workers’ Interest Group 126
7.2.2 NZPC’s Services and Stigma 128
7.3 Sex Workers’ Ambitions for the Future 131
7.3.1 Access to Mental Health Care 131
7.3.2 The Financial Consequence of Exiting 134
7.3.3 “We Use Them and They Use Us” 135
7.3.4 NZPC’s Approach Toward Minor Sex Workers: Opposing Views 136
7.3.5 The Collaboration between NZPC and Operators 138
7.3.6 Improved Education: A Sex Work Degree 140

Chapter 8
Inconsistencies and New Quandaries: Legal Principles Versus
Practical Implementation, A Critical Reflection 149
8.1 Decriminalization: A Push Towards the Destigmatization of Sex Work 150
8.2 The Law Created the Criminal 152
8.3 City Council Bylaws: Reversing Decriminalization Principles 159
8.3.1 Controversial Regulations: Size Does Matter 160
8.3.2 The Outdoor Sex Industry: To Zone or Not To Zone? 164
8.4 Exploitation and Vulnerability Within a Decriminalized Sex Industry 173
8.5 The Offense of Unsafe Sex Practices: A Burning Issue 185
8.6 Willing or Not, Stigma Occasionally Offers a Helping Hand 188

Chapter 9
Conclusion 193
9.1 A Decisive Start to Decriminalization 194
9.2 Aspects of Decriminalization 194
9.3 Collaborative Governance 196
9.4 De Facto Experiences of Decriminalization Policy 196
9.5 The Legal PRA and Its Practical Implementation 198

Samenvatting 201
References 209
Appendix I-XX 225
Curriculum Vitae 253