Writing Arguments

<h2>Table of Contents</h2> <div class="c-section-headers-non-traditional-number-list_container"> <h3>I. PRINCIPLES OF ARGUMENT</h3> <ol> <li><strong>Argument: An Introduction</strong> <ul> <li>What Do We Mean by Argument? <ul> <li>Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel</li> <li>Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate</li> <li>Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit</li> </ul></li> <li>An Explicit Argument Opposing Legalization of Marijuana</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Implicit and Explicit Arguments</li> <li>The Defining Features of Argument <ul> <li>Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims</li> <li>Argument Is Both a Process and a Product</li> <li>Argument Combines Truth-Seeking and Persuasion</li> </ul></li> <li>Argument and the Problem of Truth in the 21st Century</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Role-Playing Arguments <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reason</strong> <ul> <li>The Classical Structure of Argument</li> <li>Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle</li> <li>Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument <ul> <li>Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question</li> <li>How to Identify an Issue Question</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Information Questions Versus Issue Questions <ul> <li>Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments</li> <li>Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons <ul> <li>What Is a Reason?</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Using Images to Support an Argument <ul> <li>Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Claims and Reasons <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 0</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>The Logical Structure of Arguments: Logos</strong> <ul> <li>An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument? <ul> <li>Formal Logic Versus Real-World Logic</li> <li>The Role of Assumptions</li> <li>The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme</li> <li>The Power of Audience-Based Reasons</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing Audience-Based Reasons</li> <li>Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema</li> <li>Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument <ul> <li>Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes</li> </ul></li> <li>First Part of Chandale’s Argument</li> <li>Continuation of Chandale’s Argument <ul> <li>Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games</li> </ul></li> <li>Carmen Tieu (Student Essay), Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls <ul> <li>The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> <li>A Note on the Informal Fallacies</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Using Evidence Effectively</strong> <ul> <li>Kinds of Evidence</li> <li>The Persuasive Use of Evidence <ul> <li>Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence</li> <li>Establish a Trustworthy Ethos</li> <li>Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data</li> </ul></li> <li>Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence <ul> <li>Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Creating Contrasting Angles of Vision</li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision <ul> <li>Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence</li> <li>Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Using Strategies to Frame Statistical Evidence <ul> <li>Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos</strong> <ul> <li>Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview</li> <li>How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility</li> <li>How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions <ul> <li>Use Concrete Language</li> <li>Use Specific Examples and Illustrations</li> <li>Use Narratives</li> <li>Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Incorporating Appeals to Pathos</li> <li>Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos</li> <li>Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos</li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos</li> <li>How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Responding to Objections and Alternative Views</strong> <ul> <li>One-Sided, Multisided, and Delayed-Thesis Arguments</li> <li>Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views</li> <li>Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument</li> <li>Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument <ul> <li>Summarizing Opposing Views</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Distinguishing Fair from Unfair Summaries <ul> <li>Refuting Opposing Views</li> <li>Strategies for Rebutting Evidence</li> <li>Conceding to Opposing Views</li> <li>Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy</li> </ul></li> <li>Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Bringing Dignity to Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Refutation Strategies</li> <li>Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Delayed-Thesis Argument <ul> <li>ALEXANDER CHANCELLOR, Oh, How I Will Miss the Plastic Bag</li> <li>Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Delayed Thesis Argument <ul> <li>Reading</li> </ul></li> <li>Lauren Shinozuka (Student Essay), The Dangers of Digital Distractedness</li> </ul></li> </ol> <h3>II. ENTERING AN ARGUMENTATIVE CONVERSATION</h3> <ol start="7"> <li><strong>Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically</strong> <ul> <li>Thinking Rhetorically about a Text</li> <li>Reconstructing a Text’s Rhetorical Context <ul> <li>Author, Motivating Occasion, and Purpose</li> <li>Audience</li> <li>Genre</li> <li>Angle of Vision</li> </ul></li> <li>Asking Questions That Promote Rhetorical Thinking</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Rhetorical Analysis</li> <li>Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis of a Source Text <ul> <li>KATHRYN JEAN LOPEZ, Egg Heads</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Rhetorical Features <ul> <li>Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads”</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis <ul> <li>Readings</li> <li>ELLEN GOODMAN, Womb for Rent</li> <li>Critiquing “Womb for Rent”</li> </ul></li> <li>Zachary Stumps (Student Essay), A Rhetorical Analysis Of Ellen Goodman’s “Womb For Rent”</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Argument as Inquiry: Reading, Summarizing, and Speaking Back</strong> <ul> <li>Finding Issues to Explore <ul> <li>Do Some Initial Brainstorming</li> <li>Be Open to the Issues All Around You</li> <li>Explore Ideas by Freewriting</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Responding to Visual Arguments About a Living Wage <ul> <li>Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping</li> <li>Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Playing the Believing and Doubting Game</li> <li>Summarizing a Stakeholder’s Argument <ul> <li>JAMES SUROWIECKI, The Pay Is Too Damn Low</li> <li>Thinking Steps for Writing a Summary</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Does/Says Statements</li> <li>Examples of Summaries</li> <li>Responding to a Stakeholder’s Argument <ul> <li>Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Acceptance of the Writer’s Views</li> <li>Practicing Doubting: Willing Your Own Resistance to the Writer’s Views</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Raising Doubts About Surowiecki’s Argument</li> <li>Thinking Dialectically</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Dialectic Thinking with Two Articles <ul> <li>MICHAEL SALTSMAN, To Help the Poor, Move Beyond “Minimum” Gestures</li> <li>Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay <ul> <li>Reading</li> </ul></li> <li>Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?</li> </ul></li> </ol> <h3>III. EXPANDING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF ARGUMENT</h3> <ol start="9"> <li><strong>Making Visual and Multimodal Arguments</strong> <ul> <li>Understanding Visual Design Elements in Multimodal Argument <ul> <li>Use of Type</li> <li>Use of Space and Layout</li> <li>Use of Color</li> <li>Use of Images and Graphics</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Advocacy Ad</li> <li>The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings <ul> <li>Compositional Features to Examine in Photos and Drawings</li> <li>An Analysis of a Multimedia Video Argument Using Words, Images, and Music</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Thinking Rhetorically about Photos</li> <li>The Genres of Multimodal Argument <ul> <li>Posters and Fliers</li> <li>Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements</li> </ul></li> <li>Cartoons</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Posters Rhetorically</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Cartoons <ul> <li>Websites</li> <li>Advocacy Videos</li> </ul></li> <li>Constructing Your Own Multimodal Arguments <ul> <li>Guidelines for Creating the Visual Elements in Posters, Fliers, and Advocacy Ads</li> <li>Guidelines for Creating Video Arguments</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Ideas for an Advocacy Ad or Poster Argument</li> <li>Using Information Graphics in Arguments <ul> <li>How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories</li> <li>Using a Graph to Tell a Story</li> <li>Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument</li> <li>A Note on How Graphics Frame Data Rhetorically</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Short Argument Using Quantitative Data</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>An Alternative to Argument: Collaborative Rhetoric</strong> <ul> <li>The Appropriateness and Usefulness of Collaborative Rhetoric</li> <li>The Principles of Collaborative Rhetoric <ul> <li>Practicing Nonjudgmental Listening</li> <li>Identifying Values, Emotions, and Identities</li> <li>Seeking Common Ground</li> <li>Promoting Openness to Ongoing Communication and Change</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Listening Empathically and Seeking Common Ground</li> <li>Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing and Discussion <ul> <li>Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing</li> <li>Practicing Collaborative Rhetoric in Discussion</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Conducting a Collaborative Rhetoric Discussion</li> <li>Writing an Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric</li> <li>Colleen Fontana (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article “They Never Learn” <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> <li>Writing Assignment: An Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric <ul> <li>Reading</li> </ul></li> <li>Monica Allen (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article “High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap”</li> </ul></li> </ol> <h3>IV. ARGUMENTS IN DEPTH: TYPES OF CLAIMS</h3> <ol start="11"> <li><strong>An Introduction to the Types of Claims</strong> <ul> <li>The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Claims</li> <li>Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example <ul> <li>Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes</li> <li>Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to Real Cigarettes</li> <li>Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes</li> </ul></li> <li>Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments <ul> <li>Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Exploring Different Claim Types and Audiences <ul> <li>An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument</li> <li>ALEX HUTCHINSON, Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Definition and Resemblance Arguments</strong> <ul> <li>What Is at Stake in an Argument about Definition and Resemblance? <ul> <li>Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims</li> <li>The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Applying the Rule of Justice</li> <li>Types of Categorical Arguments <ul> <li>Simple Categorical Arguments</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Supporting and Rebutting Simple Categorical Claims <ul> <li>Definition Arguments</li> <li>Resemblance Argument Using Analogy</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Analogies <ul> <li>Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Using Claims of Precedent</li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition)</li> <li>The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition Arguments <ul> <li>Overview of Criteria-Match Structure</li> <li>Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Criteria and Match Issues <ul> <li>Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition</li> <li>Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term</li> <li>Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing a Definition</li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument</li> <li>Exploring Ideas</li> <li>Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake <ul> <li>Organizing a Definition Argument</li> <li>Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>Readings <ul> <li>Arthur Knopf (Student Essay), Is Milk a Health Food?</li> <li>Alex Mullen (Student Essay), A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does “Stealing” Mean in a Digital Environment?</li> <li>MARK OPPENHEIMER, How Do We Define Adulthood?</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Causal Arguments</strong> <ul> <li>An Overview of Causal Arguments <ul> <li>Kinds of Causal Arguments</li> </ul></li> <li>Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Causal Chains</li> <li>Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another <ul> <li>First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly</li> <li>Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Plausible Causal Chains Based on Correlations</li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim</li> <li>Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments <ul> <li>A Glossary of Key Terms</li> <li>Avoiding Common Inductive Fallacies That Can Lead to Wrong Conclusions</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Causes and Constraints</li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument <ul> <li>Exploring Ideas</li> <li>Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake</li> <li>Organizing a Causal Argument</li> <li>Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>Readings <ul> <li>Jesse Goncalves (Student Essay), What Causes Math Anxiety?</li> <li>KRIS SAKNUSSEMM, Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Are We Really Here at All? Can We Tell?</li> <li>Carlos Macias (Student Essay), “The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!”–The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Evaluation and Ethical Arguments</strong> <ul> <li>An Overview of Categorical and Ethical Evaluation Arguments</li> <li>Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument <ul> <li>Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations</li> <li>Developing Your Criteria</li> <li>Making Your Match Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing Criteria and Match Arguments</li> <li>Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument <ul> <li>Consequences as the Base of Ethics</li> <li>Principles as the Base of Ethics</li> <li>Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Developing an Ethical Argument</li> <li>Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments</li> <li>Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument <ul> <li>Exploring Ideas</li> <li>Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake</li> <li>Organizing an Evaluation Argument</li> <li>Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument</li> <li>Critiquing an Ethical Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>Readings <ul> <li>Lorena Mendoza-Flores (Student Essay), Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley High School</li> <li>Hadley Reeder (Student Essay), A Defective and Detrimental Dress Code</li> <li>JUDITH DAAR AND EREZ ALONI, Three Genetic Parents–For One Healthy Baby</li> <li>SAMUEL AQUILA, The “Therapeutic Cloning” of Human Embryos</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Proposal Arguments</strong> <ul> <li>The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments <ul> <li>Practical Proposals Versus Policy Proposals</li> <li>Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument</li> <li>Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments</li> </ul></li> <li>Developing a Proposal Argument</li> <li>Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim <ul> <li>Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists</li> <li>Explaining the Proposed Solution: Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal</li> <li>Offering a Justification: Convincing Your Readers That the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs</li> </ul></li> <li>Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal <ul> <li>The Claim Types Strategy</li> <li>The Stock Issues Strategy</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Generating Ideas Using the Claim Types Strategy</li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Ideas for a Proposal</li> <li>Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements</li> <li>Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument <ul> <li>Exploring Ideas</li> <li>Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake</li> <li>Organizing a Proposal Argument</li> <li>Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement</li> <li>Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech</li> <li>Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument</li> </ul></li> <li>Readings <ul> <li>Megan Johnson (Student Essay), A Practical Proposal</li> <li>Ivan Snook (Student Essay), Flirting with Disaster: An Argument against Integrating Women into the Combat Arms</li> <li>Sandy Wainscott (Student Essay), Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End Subsidies for Cheap Meat</li> <li>MARCEL DICKE AND ARNOLD VAN HUIS, The Six-Legged Meat of the Future</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ol> <h3>V. THE RESEARCHED ARGUMENT</h3> <ol start="16"> <li><strong>Finding and Evaluating Sources</strong> <ul> <li>Formulating a Research Question Instead of a Topic</li> <li>Thinking Rhetorically About Kinds of Sources <ul> <li>Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question</li> <li>Approaching Sources Rhetorically</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Sources</li> <li>Finding Sources <ul> <li>Conducting Interviews</li> <li>Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires</li> <li>Finding Books and Reference Sources</li> <li>Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines, and News Sources</li> <li>Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web</li> </ul></li> <li>Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources and Taking Purposeful Notes <ul> <li>Reading with Rhetorical Awareness</li> <li>Evaluating Sources</li> <li>Criteria for Evaluating a Web Source</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing the Rhetorical Elements of Two Websites <ul> <li>Taking Purposeful Notes</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument</strong> <ul> <li>Using Sources for Your Own Purposes <ul> <li>Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism</li> <li>Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism</li> <li>Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing And Discussion: Using a Source for Different Purposes</li> <li>Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation <ul> <li>Summarizing</li> <li>Paraphrasing</li> <li>Quoting</li> </ul></li> <li>Punctuating Quotations Correctly <ul> <li>Quoting a Complete Sentence</li> <li>Quoting Words and Phrases</li> <li>Modifying a Quotation</li> <li>Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage</li> <li>Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation</li> <li>Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage</li> </ul></li> <li>Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags <ul> <li>Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations</li> <li>Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response</li> </ul></li> <li>Avoiding Plagiarism <ul> <li>Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly</li> <li>Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism</li> </ul></li> <li>For Writing And Discussion: Avoiding Plagiarism <ul> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Citing and Documenting Sources</strong> <ul> <li>The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited Works</li> <li>MLA Style <ul> <li>In-Text Citations in MLA Style</li> <li>Works Cited List in MLA Style</li> <li>MLA Works Cited Citation Models</li> <li>MLA-Style Research Paper</li> </ul></li> <li>APA Style <ul> <li>In-Text Citations in APA Style</li> <li>References List in APA Style</li> <li>APA References Citation Models</li> <li>APA-Style Research Paper</li> <li>Conclusion</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ol> <h3>APPENDIX: INFORMAL FALLACIES</h3> <ul> <li>The Difference Between Formal and Informal Logic</li> </ul> </div>