Necessity in International Law

Acknowledgments
Introduction

I. Three Kinds of Necessity: Exception, License, and Constraint
II. A Roadmap
III. Normative Prescriptions

Part A. Necessity & Jus Ad Bellum

1. Necessity and the Principle of Last Resort in Just War Theory
I. Defining Aggression in the Just War Tradition
II. Gentili and the Justification of Offensive War
III. Grotius on Fear of Attack
IV. The Grotian Principles of Last Resort and Ad Bellum Necessity
V. Last Resort as the Ultimate Restraint
VI. Equally Efficacious Means

2. Necessity and the Use of Force in International Law
I. Necessity and Customary Treaty Law
II. Necessity in Investor-State Relations
III. Necessity in Jus ad Bellum Violations
IV. Necessity as a Component of Self-Defense
V. Conclusion

Part B. Necessity & Jus in Bello

3. Necessity and Discrimination in Just War Theory
I. Necessity and Discrimination in Early Modern Just War Theory
II. Necessity and Humane Treatment
III. Luck and Necessity
IV. Military Necessity as a Form of Practical Necessity
V. Relating Jus In Bello Proportionality and Necessity

4. The Foundations of Necessity in IHL
I. The ICRC and Necessity
II. Lieber's Conception of Necessity
III. Necessity in the Nuremberg Tribunals
IV. What's Right and What's Wrong with Lieber's Necessity
V. Conclusion

5. Necessity in Human Rights Law and IHL
I. Human Rights Necessity
II. Combining Human Rights Necessity with IHL Necessity
III. Conclusions

6. Necessity in Criminal Law
I. Necessity in Domestic Criminal Law
I. No Constraints on the Necessity Defense
III. Ad Hoc Constraints
IV. Principled Constraints
V. Conclusion

7. Striking a Balance Between Humanity and Necessity
I. Humanity
II. Humanitarianism and Human Dignity
III. Humane Treatment
IV. Dignity and Vulnerability
V. Humanitarian Rights
VI. Concluding Thoughts on the Principles of Humanity and Necessity