Research Methods in Social Relations, 8e

Action Research Approaches 86
Participatory Action Research 87
Community–Based Participatory Research 87
Importance of Work that Engages Practitioners and Is Relevant to Policy 89
Historical Roots of Engaged Research 90
Importance of Collaborative Engaged Research 92
Prior Social Relations Research Affecting Policy and Practice 93
Applied versus Translational Research 94
Practical Suggestions for Developing Relations with Policy Makers, Practitioners, and Communities 94
Developing Relationships 95
Being Aware of and Acknowledging Other Ongoing Research and Partnership Efforts 96
Organizing Meetings 97
Building Commitment to the Work 98
Dynamics of Power in Relationships with Communities 98
Communication 99
Establishing Timelines for Work and a Work Plan 99
Finding Support for the Research 100
Summary 103
Illustrative Examples 103

Chapter 5 Research in Laboratory Settings 107
When Should the Laboratory Be Used? 109
Universalistic versus Particularistic Research Goals 109
Basic versus Applied Research 110
Examining What Does Happen versus What Would Happen 111
Manipulable versus Nonmanipulable Independent Variables 112
Short versus Long Time Frames 112
Participants Awareness of the Research 113
Summary 113
Types of Laboratory Study 114
Impact Studies 114
Judgment Studies 114
Observational Studies 115
Summary 115
Artifact and Artificiality 115
The Laboratory and Types of Validity 116
Internal Validity 116
Construct Validity 116
External Validity 118
Artificiality of the Laboratory 119
Overcoming Threats to Validity of Laboratory Research 120
Experimenter Expectancy 120
Demand Characteristics 124
Elements of a Laboratory Study 125
Setting 125
Independent Variable 126
Manipulation Checks 130
Dependent Variable 132
Debriefing 134
Summary 136

Chapter 6 Research in Field and Community–Based Settings 139
Levels of Analysis 141
Randomization: Pro and Con 143
Illustrations of Non–Laboratory Research 147
Experimental Research: The Jigsaw Classroom 147
Non–Experimental Research: Engaging and Persisting in Volunteerism 148
Non–Experimental Research: Impacts of Post–Secondary Education on Inmate Recidivism Rates, an Action Research Study 149
Can We Afford Not to Do Applied Research? 151
Illustration: Living Downwind of Nuclear Reactors 151
Conducting Research in Community Settings 154
Cultural Issues 156
Control of Extraneous Factors, Statistical and Otherwise 158
Summary 159

Part II Research Approaches in Social Relations Research 161

Chapter 7 Measurement and Reliability 163
From Abstract Concepts to Concrete Representations 164
Constructs 164
Variables 165
Operational Definitions 165
Operational Definitions Are Necessary but Rarely Sufficient 165
Definitional Operationism 166
Measurement Presupposes a Clearly Defined Construct 167
Developing Questionnaire Items 169
Questions Aimed at Facts 170
Questions Aimed at Beliefs or Attitudes 170
Questions Aimed at Friendship Patterns and Attitudes toward Specific Others 172
Questions Aimed at Behavior 172
Question Content: General Issues 173
Question Structure 175
Expressing All Alternatives 175
Avoiding Unwarranted Assumptions 175
Open–Ended versus Closed–Ended Questions 176
Response Options for Closed–Ended Questions 178
Filters and the Assessment of No Opinion 179
Question Sequence 179
Sequence within a Topic Area 180
Item Wording for Sensitive Questions 181
Creating Multiple–Item Scales 182
Issues Concerning Item Construction in Multiple–Item Scales 183
Levels of Measurement 184
Nominal 184
Ordinal 184
Interval 184
Ratio 185
Types of Multiple–Item Scales 186
Differential Scales 186
Cumulative Scales 187
Summated Scales 189
Semantic Differential Scales 191
Reliability and Sources of Unreliability 192
Test Retest Reliability 195
Internal Consistency Reliability 195
Inter–Rater Reliability 196
Factors that Affect Reliability 196
Summary 197

Chapter 8 Evaluating the Construct Validity of Measures 201
Using Multiple Methods of Measurement 202
Indirect Methods of Measurement 204
Collateral Reports 204
Observation 205
Physiological Measures 207
Other Indirect Methods 209
Summary 210
Evaluating Construct Validity 211
Face Validity 212
Content Validity 212
Criterion Validity 213
Convergent Validity 214
Discriminant Validity 215
Validity and the Nomological Net 216
The Multitrait Multimethod Matrix 216
Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses 221
Cultural Issues in Measurement 224
Summary 225

Chapter 9 Sampling Methods 229
Some Basic Definitions and Concepts 231
Nonprobability Sampling 234
Haphazard Samples 234
Quota Samples 234
Purposive Samples 235
Snowball Samples 236
Concluding Thoughts about Nonprobability Sampling 237
Probability Sampling 237
Simple Random Samples 238
Selecting a Random Sample 239
Obtaining and Using Random Numbers 239
Principles Underlying the Use of Probability Sampling 241
Common Errors in Random Sampling 243
Stratified Random Sampling 244
Cluster Sampling 247
Sampling Error 249
Random Digit Dial (RDD) Telephone Sampling 250
Sampling Elements Other Than People 251
Summary 253

Chapter 10 Randomized Experiments 257
Controlling and Manipulating Variables 258
Random Assignment 261
Independent Variables that Vary Within and Between Participants 263
Threats to Internal Validity 264
Selection 265
Maturation 265
History 266
Instrumentation 267
Mortality 267
Selection by Maturation 268
Illustrating Threats to Internal Validity with a Research Example 269
Selection 270
Selection by Maturation 270
Maturation 271
History 271
Instrumentation 271
Mortality 272
Construct Validity of Independent Variables in a Randomized Experiment 272
Alternative Experimental Designs 274
Design 1: Randomized Two–Group Design 274
Design 2: Pretest Posttest Two–Group Design 275
Design 3: Solomon Four–Group Design 276
Design 4: Between–Participants Factorial Design 277
Repeated Measures Designs 282
Analyzing Data from Experimental Designs 284
Strengths and Weaknesses of Randomized Experiments 284
Experimental Artifacts 285
External Validity 285
The Problem of College Sophomores in the Laboratory 286
The Failure of Experiments to Provide Useful Descriptive Data 287
Summary 288

Chapter 11 Quasi–Experimental and Other Nonrandomized Designs 291
Examples of Nonrandomized Designs 293
Survey Study 293
Quasi–Experimental Intervention Study 295
Conditions for Causality 297
Illustrative Nonrandomized Designs 300
Static–Group Comparison Design 300
Pretest Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design 302
One–Group Pretest Posttest Design 304
Interrupted Time–Series Design 305
Replicated Interrupted Time–Series Design 309
Single Case/Single Subject Designs 310
Regression Effects: Challenges of Matching in Quasi–Experimentation 312
Regression Discontinuity Analysis 317
Propensity Score Matching 318
Summary 320

Chapter 12 Non–Experimental Research 323
Types of Non–Experimental Research 325
Causal Thinking and Correlational Data 326
Analyzing Non–Experimental Quantitative Data 328
Longitudinal Panel Designs 329
Naturalness in Research 330
Benefits and Costs of Naturalness 332
When Might We Not Need Natural Settings? 333
Observational Research 335
Unobtrusive Measures Involving Physical Traces 335
Systematic Observation 338
Relatively Unstructured Methods: Ethological Approaches 339
Structured Methods: Checklists or Coding Schemes 341
Steps in Conducting an Observation 345
Archival Research 349
Statistical Records 351
Characteristics of Archival Research 354
Research Survey Archives 355
Verbal Records 356
Public and Private Documents 356
Mass Communications/Social Media 356
Issues in Archival Research 359
Summary 360

Chapter 13 Qualitative Research 365
Narrative Analysis 366
Research Example of Narrative Analysis 367
Analyzing and Reporting Narrative Data 368
Focus Groups 371
How Focus Groups Are Structured and Conducted 371
Case Study of the Strategic Use of Focus Groups 375
What Focus Groups Can and Cannot Do 376
Oral History 378
Participant Observation 382
Field Notes 384
Analyzing Field Notes 385
Generalization 386
Ethical Concerns 387
Summary 388

Chapter 14 Survey Research 391
Major Components of Survey Research and Sources of Error 393
Major Survey Research Designs 394
Modes of Data Collection 396
Questionnaires 396
Face–to–Face Interviews 400
Telephone Interviews 402
Asking Sensitive Questions 405
Summary 408

Chapter 15 Evaluation Research 413
Background 414
Defining Program Evaluation 415
Program Evaluation and Accountability 415
Steps in an Evaluation 417
Summative and Formative Evaluations 418
Detailed Description of Stages in Conducting a Program Evaluation 419
Developing a Conceptual Model 420
Developing Evaluation Questions 421
Developing an Evaluation Design 422
Collecting Data 422
Analyzing Data 423
Providing Information to Interested Audiences 423
A Quasi–Experimental Program Evaluation: Compensatory Education 424
The Politics of Applied and Evaluation Research 427
Results with Immediate Impact 427
Vested Interests and Competing Criteria 428
Technical Decisions with Ideological Consequences 429
Clients and Other Stakeholders Participation in Evaluations 430
Summary 432
Appendix: Criteria for Effective Evaluations 434

Chapter 16 Mixed Methods Approaches: Learning from
Complementary Methods 437
Overview 437
When to Use Mixed Methods 438
Triangulation 441
Brief Background of Mixed Methods Approaches 443
Types of Mixed Methods Approaches 443
Framing Perspectives for Mixed Methods 444
Decisions in Selecting the Type of Mixed Methods Design 444
Major Types of Mixed Methods Designs 445
Convergent Parallel Design 445
Explanatory Sequential Design 446
Exploratory Sequential Design 446
Embedded Design 446
Transformative Design 447
Multiphase Design 448
Wrapping Up 448
Summary 449

Part III Analysis and Writing 453

Chapter 17 Critically Reviewing Research Reports and Literatures 455
Reviewing Individual Research Studies 456
Step One: Read the Abstract 457
Step Two: Read the Introduction 457
Step Three: Read the Method Section with a Fine–Tooth Comb 457
A. Participants 457
B. Measures or Apparatus 458
C. Procedures 459
Step Four: Evaluate the Results 460
Step Five: Take the Discussion Section with More than a Grain of Salt 460
Reviewing Bodies of Research on a Single Topic 461
Searching the Literature 461
Other Ways of Locating Articles 463
Reviewing the Literature: Traditionally and Meta–Analytically 465
Understanding the Concept of Effect Size: The Foundation of Meta–Analysis 468
Coding Studies for a Meta–Analysis 470
Coding Other Features of Studies 473
Basic Meta–Analytic Tests: Combining and Comparing Studies 474
Writing and Reading Meta–Analyses 479
Summary 482

Chapter 18 Writing the Research Report 485
Preface 486
Some Preliminary Considerations 487
Which Report Should You Write? 487
Arguments for Position Number Two 488
Arguments for Position Number One 489
The Hourglass Shape of the Report 490
Introduction 491
What Is the Problem Being Investigated? 491
The Literature Review 493
Your Study 494
Method 494
What to Include 494
Ethical Issues 497
Results 497
Setting the Stage 497
Presenting the Findings 498
Discussion 501
Summary or Abstract 503
References 503
Appendix 503
Some Suggestions on Procedure and Style 504
Accuracy and Clarity 504
Work from an Outline 504
Write Simply. Use Examples. Use Friends as Reviewers 504
Omit Needless Words 505
Avoid Metacomments on the Writing 506
Use Repetition and Parallel Construction 506
Be Compulsive. Be Willing to Restructure 507
Person and Voice 507
Tense 508
Avoid Language Bias 508
A. Research Participants 508
B. Sex and Gender 508
C. Racial and Ethnic Identity 510
D. Sexual Orientation and Identification 510
E. Disabilities 510
Summary 511
References 513
Index 535