The Earth's Ionosphere

<p>Preface<br>Chapter 1 Introductory and Background Material</p> <p>1.1 Scope and Goals of the Text</p> <p>1.1.1 Historical Perspective</p> <p>1.1.2 Organization and Limitations</p> <p>1.2 Structure of the Neutral Atmosphere and the Main Ionosphere</p> <p>1.3 D-Region Fundamentals</p> <p>1.4 The Earth's Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere</p> <p>1.5 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Ionospheric and Magnetospheric Plasma Dynamics</p> <p>2.1 The Basic Fluid Equations</p> <p>2.1.1 Conservation of Mass</p> <p>2.1.2 Equation of State</p> <p>2.1.3 Momentum Equation for the Neutral Fluid</p> <p>2.1.4 Momentum Equations for the Plasma</p> <p>2.1.5 The Complete Equation Sets</p> <p>2.2 Steady-State Ionospheric Plasma Motions Due to Applied Forces</p> <p>2.3 Generation of Electric Fields</p> <p>2.4 Electric Field Mapping</p> <p>2.5 Elements of Magnetospheric Physics</p> <p>2.5.1 The Guiding Center Equations and the Adiabatic Invariants</p> <p>2.5.2 Magnetohydrodynamics</p> <p>2.6 Are Ionospheric Electric Fields Real?</p> <p>2.7 Coordinate Systems</p> <p>2.8 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 3 Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Equatorial Zone</p> <p>3.1 Motions of the Equatorial F Region: The Data Base</p> <p>3.2 The Equatorial F-Region Dynamo</p> <p>3.3 E-Region Dynamo Theory and the Daytime Equatorial Electrojet</p> <p>3.4 Further Complexities of Equatorial Electrodynamics</p> <p>3.4.1 The Prereversal Enhancement</p> <p>3.4.2 High-Latitude Effects on the Equatorial Electric Field</p> <p>3.5 Feedback Between the Electrodynamics and Thermospheric Winds</p> <p>3.6 Mesospheric and Lower Thermospheric Dynamics</p> <p>3.6.1 Atmospheric Winds in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere</p> <p>3.6.2 A Primer on Turbulence and the Turbopause</p> <p>3.7 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 4 Equatorial Plasma Instabilities and Mesospheric Turbulence</p> <p>4.1 F-Region Plasma Instabilities: Observations</p> <p>4.2 Development and Initiation of Convective Ionospheric Storms (a.k.a. Equatorial Spread F)</p> <p>4.2.1 Linear Theory of the Rayleigh-Taylor Instability</p> <p>4.2.2 The Generalized Rayleigh-Taylor Process: Electric Fields, Neutral Winds, and<br>Horizontal Gradients</p> <p>4.2.3 The Seeding of Convective Ionospheric Storms by Gravity Waves</p> <p>4.2.4 Role of Velocity Shear in Convective Ionospheric Storms</p> <p>4.2.5 Summary of Linear Theory Results</p> <p>4.3 Nonlinear Theories of Convective Ionospheric Storms</p> <p>4.3.1 Two-Dimensional Computer Simulations</p> <p>4.3.2 Simulations Including Seeding and Shear</p> <p>4.3.3 Summary of Nonlinear Theory Results</p> <p>4.4 Linkage of Large and Small Scales in CEIS</p> <p>4.4.1 Evidence for a Diffusive Subrange</p> <p>4.4.2 The Diffusive Subrange</p> <p>4.4.3 Toward a Unified Theory for the Convective Ionospheric Storm Spectrum</p> <p>4.5 Convective Ionospheric Storms Summary</p> <p>4.6 E-Region Plasma Instabilities: The Observational Data Base</p> <p>4.7 Linear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities</p> <p>4.8 Nonlinear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities</p> <p>4.8.1 Two-Step Theories for Secondary Waves</p> <p>4.8.2 On the Observations that the Phase Velocity of Type I Equatorial Waves is<br>Independent of Angle</p> <p>4.8.3 Nonlinear Gradient Drift Theories</p> <p>4.8.4 Nonlinear Studies of Farley-Buneman (FB) Waves</p> <p>4.9 D-Region Turbulence</p> <p>4.10 Future Directions</p> <p>4.11 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 5 Hydro- and Electro-dynamics of The Mid-Latitude Ionosphere</p> <p>5.1 Introduction to the Tropical and Mid-Latitude Ionospheres</p> <p>5.1.1 Background Material</p> <p>5.1.2 On the Height of the Daytime F2 Layer</p> <p>5.1.3 Equations Including Vertical Flux Without Winds or Electric Fields</p> <p>5.1.4 F-Layer Solutions with Production, Diffusion, and Flux</p> <p>5.1.5 More General Nighttime Solutions</p> <p>5.1.6 The Appleton Anomaly: An Equatorial Electric Field Effect</p> <p>5.1.7 The Corotation Electric Field and Formation of the Plasmasphere</p> <p>5.2 Electric Fields in the Tropical and Mid-Latitude Zone</p> <p>5.2.1 Electric Field Measurements</p> <p>5.2.2 Neutral Wind Effects</p> <p>5.2.3 Combined Effects of Electric Fields and Neutral Winds</p> <p>5.2.4 Complexities of the Real Nighttime Tropical Ionosphere</p> <p>5.2.5 The Transition Zone between Mid and High Latitudes</p> <p>5.3 Mid-Latitude Lower Thermosphere Dynamics</p> <p>5.3.1 Tidal Effects</p> <p>5.3.2 Wind Profiles</p> <p>5.4 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 6 Waves and Instabilities at Mid-Latitudes</p> <p>6.1 Mesoscale Vertical Organization of Ionospheric Plasma: General Considerations</p> <p>6.2 Oscillations of the Neutral Atmosphere</p> <p>6.3 Role of Gravity Waves and Tides in Creating Vertical Ionospheric Structure</p> <p>6.4 Effects of Particle Precipitation at Mid-Latitudes</p> <p>6.5 Horizontal Structure in the Midlatitude Ionosphere</p> <p>6.6 Mid-Latitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities</p> <p>6.6.1 F-Region Plasma Instabilities in the Equatorial Anomaly (Equatorial Arc) Region</p> <p>6.6.2 Local Mid-Latitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities: A New Process</p> <p>6.6.3 Linear Theory for the Perkins Instability</p> <p>6.7 Mid-Latitude E-Region Instabilities</p> <p>6.7.1 Radiowave Observations of Nighttime Mid-Latitude E-Region Instabilities</p> <p>6.7.2 The Wavelength Limiting Effect</p> <p>6.7.3 Multi-Experimental Observations of Mid-Latitude Structures</p> <p>6.7.4 Mid-Latitude E-Region Instabilities: Difficulties with Simple Explanations</p> <p>6.7.5 The Effect of a Wind Shear: The Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability as a Source of<br>Q-P Echoes</p> <p>6.7.6 The Role of Horizontal Structure: Amplification by the Cowling Effect</p> <p>6.7.7 Spontaneous Structuring by the Es Layer Instability</p> <p>6.7.8 Coupling of Es Layers and the F Layer</p> <p>6.7.9 The Wavelength Limiting Effect and Small-Scale Instabilities</p> <p>6.7.10 Wind-Driven Thermal Instabilities</p> <p>6.8 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 7 Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Mesosphere</p> <p>7.1 Noctilucent Clouds (NLC) and the Temperature Anomaly</p> <p>7.2 Gravity Wave Breaking</p> <p>7.3 The Polar Summer Mesosphere: A Wave-Driven Refrigerator</p> <p>7.4 New Observations of NLC and Related Phenomena</p> <p>7.5 Polar Mesosphere Summer Echoes (PMSE)</p> <p>7.6 The Role of Charged Ice</p> <p>7.7 On the Possible Relationship Between PMSE, NLC, and Atmospheric Change</p> <p>7.8 Upward-Propagating Lightning</p> <p>7.9 Nonlinear Mesospheric Waves</p> <p>7.9.1 Observations</p> <p>7.9.2 Analogy to a Hydrolic Jump</p> <p>7.9.3 Nonlinear Simulation of Mesospheric Bores</p> <p>7.10 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 8 High-Latitude Electrodynamics</p> <p>8.1 Electrical Coupling between the Ionosphere, Magnetosphere, and Solar Wind</p> <p>8.1.1 General Relationships</p> <p>8.1.2 A Qualitative Description for Southward IMF</p> <p>8.1.3 Energy Transfer</p> <p>8.1.4 Additional Complexities</p> <p>8.2 Observations of Ionospheric Convection</p> <p>8.2.1 Observations during Southward IMF</p> <p>8.2.2 Observations during Northward IMF</p> <p>8.3 Simple Models of Convection in the Magnetosphere</p> <p>8.3.1 Models for Southward IMF</p> <p>8.3.2 Models for Northward IMF</p> <p>8.4 Empirical and Analytic Representations of High-Latitude Convection</p> <p>8.5 Observations of Field-Aligned Currents</p> <p>8.5.1 Current Patterns for a Southward IMF</p> <p>8.5.2 Current Patterns for a Northward IMF</p> <p>8.5.3 Dependence on Magnetic Activity, IMF, and Season</p> <p>8.6 Horizontal Currents at High Latitudes</p> <p>8.7 Problem Set<br>References<br>Chapter 9 Ionospheric Response to Electric Fields</p> <p>9.1<br>Ionospheric Effects of Parallel Plasma Dynamics</p> <p>9.1.1 Ionospheric Composition at High Latitudes</p> <p>9.1.2 Hydrodynamic Theory of the Polar Wind</p> <p>9.2 Ionospheric Effects of Perpendicular Plasma Dynamics</p> <p>9.2.1 The Role of Horizontal Transport</p> <p>9.2.2 Ion Heating Due to Collisions</p> <p>9.2.3 Velocity-Dependent Recombination</p> <p>9.2.4 Positive and Negative Ionospheric Storms</p> <p>9.3 Electrodynamic Forcing of the Neutral Atmosphere</p> <p>9.3.1 J×B Forcing</p> <p>9.3.2 Global Observations and Simulations</p> <p>9.4 Particle Acceleration in the Topside Ionosphere</p> <p>9.4.1 Parallel Electric Fields in the Upper Ionosphere</p> <p>9.4.2 Ion Outflows and Perpendicular Ion Acceleration</p> <p>9.5 Summary</p> <p>9.6 Problem Set<br>References</p> <p>Chapter 10 Instabilities and Structure in the High-Latitude Ionosphere</p> <p>10.1 Planetary and Large-Scale Structures in the High-Latitude F Region</p> <p>10.1.1 Convection and Production as Sources of Planetary Scale Structure in the High-<br>Latitude lonosphere</p> <p>10.1.2 Some Effects of Plasma Transport and Loss on the Large-Scale Horizontal<br>Structure of the Ionosphere</p> <p>10.1.3 Longitudinal Structures due to Localized Sub-Auroral Electric Fields</p> <p>10.1.4 Temperature Enhancements in the Trough and Stable Auroral Red Arcs</p> <p>10.1.5 Horizontal Plasma Variations Due to Localized Plasma Production and Heating</p> <p>10.1.6 Summary</p> <p>10.2 Intermediate-Scale Structure in the High-Latitude F Region</p> <p>10.2.1 The Generalized E×B lnstability at High Latitudes</p> <p>10.2.2 Turbulent Mixing as an Alternative to Plasma Instabilities</p> <p>10.2.3 Diffusion and lmage Formation</p> <p>10.3 Small-Scale Waves in the High-Latitude F Region</p> <p>10.4 E-Region Layering at High Latitudes</p> <p>10.5 Plasma Waves and Irregularities in the High-Latitude E Region: Observations</p> <p>10.5.1 Radar Observations</p> <p>10.5.2 Rocket Observations of Auroral Electrojet Instabilities</p> <p>10.5.3 Simultaneous Data Sets</p> <p>10.5.4 Summary</p> <p>10.6 Linear Auroral Electrojet Wave Theories</p> <p>10.6.1 The Gradient Drift Instability</p> <p>10.6.2 The Two-Stream Instability and Type 4 Radar Echoes</p> <p>10.6.3 Type 3 Radar Echoes: Are They Due to Ion Cyclotron Waves?</p> <p>10.6.4 Nonlinear Theories</p> <p>10.7 Summary</p>