Smoking and Hormone-Related Disorders

RESULTS FROM THREE PROSPECTIVE STUDIES: Smoking and oestrogen-related sites - data from American cancer studies; Smoking and hormone-related disorders in the Nurses' Health Study; Effects of cigarette smoking on `hormone-related' diseases in a Southern Californian retirement community; SMOKING, THE MENOPAUSE, AND THE BENIGN REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS: Cigarette smoking and age at natural menopause; Hyperemesis gravidarum, uterine fibroids, and endometriosis: effects of cigarette smoking on risk; Cigarette smoking and benign breast cancer; SMOKING AND OSTEOPOROSIS: Smoking and osteoporosis; Cigarette smoking and skin atrophy in women - a possible connection?; Smoking and prostatic hypertrophy; Smoking and inflammatory bowel disease; Smoking and PArkinson's disease; SMOKING AND HORMONE-RELATED CANCERS: Cigarette smoking and the incidence of endometrial cancer; Cigarette smoking and cancer of the breast; Cigarette smoking and cancer of the large bowel; MECHANISMS: HORMONAL DIFFERENCES IN SMOKERS AND NON-SMOKERS: Smoking and endogenous sex hormones in men and women; Increased oxidative metabolism of oestrogens in male and female smokers; The effect of smoking on hormone levels in vivo and steroid hormone biosynthesis in vitro. MECHANISMS: HORMONES OF POSSIBLE RELEVANCE TO SMOKING-RELATED DISEASES: Oestrogens and smoking-related disease: theoretical considerations; Hormonal factors and cancers of the endometrium and breast; MECHANISMS: THE ROLE OF NICOTINE AND OTHER AGENTS IN TOBACCO SMOKE: Influence of nicotine and other components of tobacco smoke on oestradiol metabolism; Oestrogen 2-hydroxylation in rat and human liver; SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS: Smoking and hormone-related disorders: a summary of the evidence with implications for public health policy and future research.