Beginning Behavioral Research

<p> <strong>In this Section:</strong> </p> <ol> <li>Brief Table of Contents</li> <li>Full Table of Contents</li> </ol> <h2>1. BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> <h3>PART I GETTING STARTED</h3> <ul> <li>Chapter 1 Behavioral Research and the Scientific Method</li> <li>Chapter 2 From Hunches to Testable Hypotheses</li> <li>Chapter 3 Ethical Considerations and Guidelines</li> </ul> <h3>PART II OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT</h3> <ul> <li>Chapter 4 Methods of Systematic Observation</li> <li>Chapter 5 Methods for Looking Within Ourselves</li> <li>Chapter 6 Reliability and Validity in Measurement and Research</li> </ul> <h3>PART III DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION</h3> <ul> <li>Chapter 7 Randomized Experiments and Causal Inference</li> <li>Chapter 8 Nonrandomized Research and Causal Reasoning</li> <li>Chapter 9 Survey Research and Subject Recruitment</li> </ul> <h3>PART IV DESCRIBING DATA AND DRAWING INFERENCES</h3> <ul> <li>Chapter 10 Summarizing the Data</li> <li>Chapter 11 Correlating Variables</li> <li>Chapter 12 Understanding p Values and Effect Size Indicators</li> </ul> <h3>PART V STATISTICAL TESTS</h3> <ul> <li>Chapter 13 The Comparison of Two Conditions</li> <li>Chapter 14 Comparisons of More Than Two Conditions</li> <li>Chapter 15 The Analysis of Frequency Tables</li> </ul> <h3>Appendices</h3> <ul> <li>Appendix A Reporting Your Research Results</li> <li>Appendix B Statistical Tables</li> <li>Appendix C Introduction to Meta-Analysis</li> </ul> <p></p> <p></p> <h2>2. FULL TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> <ul> <li><strong>Chapter 1: Behavioral Research and the Scientific Method</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>Why Study Research Methods and Data Analysis?</li> <li>What Alternatives Are There to the Scientific Method?</li> <li>How Do Scientists Use Empirical Reasoning?</li> <li>How Is Empirical Reasoning Used in Behavioral Research?</li> <li>How Do Extraempirical Factors Come Into Play?</li> <li>What Does Behavioral Science Cover?</li> <li>How Does Research Go From Descriptive to Relational to Experimental?</li> <li>What Are the Characteristics of Good Researchers?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 2: From Hunches to Testable Hypotheses</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is Meant by a Cycle of Discovery and Justification?</li> <li>What Are Hypothesis-Generating Heuristics?</li> <li>What Is the Potential Role of Serendipity</li> <li>How Can I Do a LiteratureSearch?</li> <li>How Should I Go About Defining Variables?</li> <li>What Identifies “Good” Theories and Working Hypotheses?</li> <li>What Is the Distinction Between an Independent Variable and Dependent Variable?</li> <li>What Belongs in My Research Proposal?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 3: Ethical Considerations and Guidelines</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>How Do Ethical Guidelines in Research Function?</li> <li>What Is Informed Consent, and When Is It Used?</li> <li>How Are Ethics Reviews Done and Acted On?</li> <li>What Are Obstacles to the Rendering of “Full Justice”?</li> <li>How Can a “Relationship of Trust” Be Established?</li> <li>How Do Scientific Quality and Ethical Quality Intertwine?</li> <li>Is Deception in Research Ever Justified?</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Debriefing, and How Is It Done?</li> <li>How Is Animal Research Governed by Ethical Rules?</li> <li>What Ethical Responsibilities Are There When Writing Up Research?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 4: Methods of Systematic Observation</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is Meant by Systematic Observation?</li> <li>How Do Researchers Simultaneously Participate and Observe?</li> <li>What Can Be Learned from Quantifying Observations?</li> <li>How Are Judgment Studies Done?</li> <li>How Does Content Analysis Work?</li> <li>How Are Situations Simulated in Controlled Settings?</li> <li>What Are Plausible Rival Hypotheses and the Third-Variable Problem?</li> <li>What Is the Distinction Between Reactive and Nonreactive Observation?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 5: Methods for Looking Within Ourselves</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Are the Uses and Limitations of Self-Report Measures?</li> <li>What Are Open-Ended and Fixed-Choice Items?</li> <li>How Are Personality and Projective Tests Used?</li> <li>What Is Meant By Measuring Implicit Attitudes?</li> <li>What Are Numerical, Forced-Choice, and Graphic Ratings?</li> <li>What Are Rating Errors, and How Are They Controlled?</li> <li>What Is the Semantic Differential Method?</li> <li>What Are Likert Scales and Thurstone Scales?</li> <li>How Are Items Prepared for a Questionnaire or an Interview?</li> <li>How Are Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews Done?</li> <li>How Are Behavioral Diaries Used in Research?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 6: Reliability and Validity in Measurement and Research</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is the Difference Between Validity and Reliability?</li> <li>What Are Random and Systematic Errors?</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Retest and Alternate-Form Reliability?</li> <li>What Is Internal-Consistency Reliability, and How Is It Increased?</li> <li>What Is Acceptable Test-Retest and Internal-Consistency Reliability?</li> <li>How Is the Reliability of Judges Measured?</li> <li>How Is Reliability Related to Replication and External Validity?</li> <li>How Are Content and Criterion Validity Defined?</li> <li>How Is Construct Validity Assessed in Test Development?</li> <li>How Is Construct Validity Relevant to Experimental Design?</li> <li>What Is the Importance of Statistical-Conclusion Validity and Internal Validity?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 7: Randomized Experiments and Causal Inference</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Randomized Experiments?</li> <li>How Is Random Assignment Accomplished?</li> <li>What Are Between-Subjects Designs?</li> <li>What Is the Formative Logic of Experimental Control</li> <li>What Are Within-Subjects Designs?</li> <li>What Are Factorial Designs?</li> <li>What Is Meant by Counterbalancing the Conditions?</li> <li>Why Is Causality Said To Be “Shrouded in Mystery”?</li> <li>How Do Scientists Logically Puzzle Out Efficient Causality?</li> <li>What Conditions Pose a Threat to Internal Validity?</li> <li>What Are Artifacts in Research?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 8: Nonrandomized Research and Causal Reasoning</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>How Is Causal Reasoning Attempted in the Absence of Randomization?</li> <li>How Is the Third-Variable Problem Relevant?</li> <li>What Is Meant By Subclassification on Propensity Scores?</li> <li>What Are Time-Series Designs and “Found Experiments”?</li> <li>What Within-Subjects Designs Are Used in Single-Case Experiments?</li> <li>How Are Correlations Interpreted in Cross-Lagged Panel Designs?</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Longitudinal Research Using Cohorts?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 9: Survey Research and Subject Recruitment</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Are Opportunity and Probability Samples?</li> <li>What Is Meant by Bias and Instability in Survey Research?</li> <li>Why Do We Not Know “For Sure” the Bias in Sampling?</li> <li>How Is Simple Random Sampling Done?</li> <li>What Are Stratified Random Sampling and Area Probability Sampling?</li> <li>What Did the Literary Digest Case Teach Pollsters?</li> <li>What Are Point Estimates and Interval Estimates?</li> <li>What Are the Benefits of Stratification?</li> <li>How Is Nonresponse Bias Handled in Survey Research?</li> <li>What Are the Typical Characteristics of Volunteer Subjects?</li> <li>How Is Volunteer Bias in Opportunity Samples Managed?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 10: Summarizing the Data</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>How Is Visual Integrity Ensured When Results Are Graphed?</li> <li>How Are Frequencies Displayed in Tables, Bar Graphs, and Line Graphs?</li> <li>How Do Stem-and-Leaf Charts Work?</li> <li>How Are Percentiles Used to Summarize Part of a Batch?</li> <li>How Is an Exploratory Data Analysis Done?</li> <li>How Does Asymmetry Affect Measures of Central Tendency?</li> <li>How Do I Measure How “Spread Out” a Set of Scores Is?</li> <li>What Are Descriptive and Inferential Measures?</li> <li>How Do I Estimate a Confidence Interval Around a Population Mean?</li> <li>What Is Distinctive About the Normal Distribution?</li> <li>Why Are z Scores Called Standard Scores, and How Are They Used?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 11: Correlating Variables</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Are Different Forms of Correlations?</li> <li>How Are Correlations Visualized in Scatter Plots?</li> <li>How Is a Product-Moment Correlation Calculated?</li> <li>How Is Dummy Coding Used in Correlation?</li> <li>When Is the Phi Coefficient Used?</li> <li>How Is a Correlation Calculated on Ranks?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 12: Understanding p Values and Effect Size Indicators</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>Why Is It Important to Focus Not Just on p Values?</li> <li>What Is the Reasoning Behind Null Hypothesis Significance Testing?</li> <li>What Is the Distinction Between Type I and Type II Error?</li> <li>What Are One-Tailed and Two-Tailed p Values?</li> <li>What Is the Counternull Statistic?</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Doing a Power Analysis?</li> <li>How Do I Estimate a Confidence Interval for an Effect Size Correlation?</li> <li>What Can Effect Sizes Tell Us of Practical Importance?</li> <li>What Does Killeen’s p_rep Tell Me?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 13: The Comparison of Two Conditions</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Do Signal-to-Noise Ratios Have to Do With t Tests?</li> <li>How Do I Compute an Independent-Sample t Test?</li> <li>What Can a Table of p Values for t Teach Me?</li> <li>What Is an Effect Size Index for an Independent-Sample t?</li> <li>How Do I Interpret Cohen’s d for Independent Groups?</li> <li>How Do I Compute Interval Estimates for Cohen’s d?</li> <li>How Can I Maximize the Independent-Sample t?</li> <li>How Does a Paired t Test Differ From an Independent-Sample t Test?</li> <li>What Is an Effect Size Index for a Paired t?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 14: Comparisons of More Than Two Conditions</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and How Are F and t Related?</li> <li>How Is Variability Apportioned in a One-Way ANOVA?</li> <li>How Are ANOVA Summary Tables Set Up and Interpreted?</li> <li>How Can I Test for Simple Effects After an Omnibus F?</li> <li>How Is Variability Apportioned in a Two-Way ANOVA?</li> <li>How Do I Interpret Main and Interaction Effects?</li> <li>How Is a Two-Way ANOVA Computed and a Summary Table Set Up?</li> <li>What Are Contrasts, and How Do I Compute Them On More Than Two Groups?</li> <li>What Do r_{effect size r alerting} and r_contrast Tell Me?</li> <li>How Are Contrasts on Multiple Repeated Measures Computed?</li> <li>How Are Latin Square Designs Analyzed?</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> <li><strong>Chapter 15: The Analysis of Frequency Tables</strong> <ul> <li>Preview Questions</li> <li>What Is the Purpose of Chi-Square (X²)?</li> <li>How Do I Compute 1-df Chi-Squares?</li> <li>How Do I Obtain the p Value, Effect Size, and Confidence Interval?</li> <li>What Is the Relationship Between 1df X ² and Phi?</li> <li>How Do I Deal With Tables Larger Than 2X2?</li> <li>How Is Standardizing the Margins Done, and What Can It Tell Me?</li> <li>What Is a Binomial Effect-Size Display Used For?</li> <li>A Journey Begun</li> <li>Summary of Ideas</li> <li>Key Terms</li> <li>Multiple-Choice Questions for Review</li> <li>Discussion Questions for Review</li> <li>Answers to Review Questions</li> </ul></li> </ul> <h3>Appendix A Reporting Your Research Results</h3> <ul> <li>Research Reports in APA Style</li> <li>Getting Started</li> <li>Title Page</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li>Introduction</li> <li>Method</li> <li>Results</li> <li>Discussion</li> <li>References</li> <li>Footnotes</li> <li>Tables and Figures</li> <li>Appendix</li> <li>Writing and Revising</li> </ul> <h3>Appendix B Statistical Tables</h3> <ul> <li>B.1. z Values and Their Associated One-Tailed p Values</li> <li>B.2. t Values and Their Associated One-Tailed and Two-Tailed p Values</li> <li>B.3. F Values and Their Associated p Values</li> <li>B.4. r² Values and Their Associated p Values</li> <li>B.5. r Values and Their Associated p Values</li> <li>B.6. Transformations of r to Fisher zr</li> <li>B.7. Transformations of Fisher zr to r</li> </ul> <h3>Appendix C Introduction to Meta-Analysis</h3> <ul> <li>The Purpose of Meta-Analysis</li> <li>Some Pro and Con Arguments</li> <li>Comparing Two Effect Sizes</li> <li>Combining Two Effect Sizes</li> <li>Obtaining an Overall Significance Level</li> <li>Detective-Like Probing of Reported Data</li> <li>The File Drawer Problem</li> </ul> <h4>Glossary of Terms</h4> <h4>References</h4> <h4>Name Index</h4> <h4>Subject Index</h4> <p></p>