Cavitation Reaction Engineering

1. Sources and Types of Cavitation.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Hydrodynamic Cavitation.- 1.2a. Cavitation Number.- 1.3. Acoustic Cavitation.- 1.4. Optic and Particle Cavitation.- 2. Cavitation Bubble Dynamics.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Bubble Dynamics.- 2.2a. Bubble Nuclei: Blake Threshold.- 2.2b. Dynamic Equations of a Spherical Bubble: Analysis of an Empty Bubble.- 2.2c. Dynamics of a Gas Bubble.- 2.2d. Equation Involving Compressibility of a Liquid.- 2.2e. Rayleigh Analysis of a Cavity and Its Extensions.- 2.2f. Adiabatic Collapse of a Gas-Filled Cavity.- 2.2g. Damping of Stable Bubbles.- 2.2h. Modifications for Hydrodynamic Cavitation.- 2.3. Cluster Dynamics.- 2.3a. Model Equations for Cluster Dynamics.- 2.4. Heat and Mass Transfer Effects in Cavitation.- 2.4a. Rectified Diffusion.- 2.4b. Rectified Heat Transfer in Bubble Oscillations.- 2.4c. Effect of Simultaneous Diffusion and Evaporation on Bubble Dynamics.- 2.5. Concluding Remarks.- 3. Factors Affecting Cavitation Behavior.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Factors Affecting Cavity Behavior in Hydrodynamic Cavitation.- 3.2a. Recovered Discharge Pressure and Time of Pressure Recovery.- 3.2b. Downstream Pipe Size.- 3.2c. Orifice-to-Pipe Diameter Ratio.- 3.2d. Initial Bubble Radius and the Noncondensable Gas Fraction in Cavitating Liquids.- 3.3. Factors Affecting Cavity Behavior in Acoustic Cavitation.- 3.3a. Acoustic Frequency.- 3.3b. Acoustic Intensity.- 3.3c. External Pressure.- 3.3d. Nature of the Dissolved Gas.- 3.3e. Physical Properties of the Cavitating Medium.- 3.3f. Pretreatment of the Liquid.- 3.3g. Bulk Liquid Temperature.- 3.3h. Initial Bubble Radius.- 3.4. Factors Affecting Optical Cavitation.- 3.5. Factors Affecting Cavity Cluster Behavior in Hydrodynamic Cavitation.- 3.5a. Effect of Recovery Pressure.- 3.5b. Effect of Time of Pressure Recovery.- 3.5c. Effect of Initial Cluster Radius.- 3.5d. Effect of Bubble Volume Fraction.- 3.6. Factors Affecting Cavity Cluster Behavior in Acoustic Cavitation.- 3.7. Concluding Remarks.- 4. Gas-Liquid Cavitation Chemistry.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Mechanisms for Cavitation Reaction.- 4.3. Factors Affecting Cavitation Chemistry.- 4.3a. Acoustic Frequency.- 4.3b. Acoustic Intensity.- 4.3c. External Pressure.- 4.3d. Gas Solubility.- 4.3e. Nature of the Gas.- 4.3f. Liquid Properties.- 4.3g. Bulk Temperature.- 4.4. Inorganic and Organic Cavitation Reactions.- 4.4a. Water.- 4.4b. Effect of Other Dissolved Gases.- 4.4c. Inorganic Reactions.- 4.4d. Organic Reactions.- 4.4e. Solute Hydrophobicity and Reactivity.- 4.5. Depolymerization and Repolymerization Reactions.- 4.6. Ultrasound and Homogeneous Oxidation.- 4.7. Ultrasound and Liquid-Liquid Phase-Transfer Reactions.- 5. Gas-Liquid-Solid Cavitation Chemistry.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. General Effects of Ultrasound on Gas-Liquid-Solid Reactions.- 5.2a. Surface Cleaning.- 5.2b. Morphological Changes in Metal Catalysts.- 5.2c. Cavitation Erosion.- 5.2d. Shape, Size, and Specific Area of Particle.- 5.2e. Improved Mass Transport.- 5.2f. Mechanisms for Gas-Liquid-Solid Cavitation Reaction.- 5.3. Specific Role of Ultrasound on Gas-Liquid-Solid Reactions.- 5.3a. Catalyst and Reagent Preparation.- 5.3b. Effects of Ultrasound on Catalyst-Reagent Activation.- 5.3c. Catalyst Induction Period.- 5.3d. Reactions with Continuous Ultrasound.- 5.3e. Effects of Ultrasound on Catalyst Regeneration.- 5.4. Case Studies.- 5.4a. Cavitation Effect on Heterogeneous Catalytic Oxidation.- 5.4b. Cavitation Effect on Liquid-Solid Phase-Transfer Reactions.- 5.4c. Cavitation Effect on Gas-Liquid-Solid Biological Reactions.- 5.4d. Cavitation Effect on Photo-oxidation Reactions.- 5.4e. Cavitation-Induced Microfusion.- 6. Cavitation Reactors.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors.- 6.2a. High-Pressure Homogenizer.- 6.3. Acoustic Cavitation Reactors.- 6.3a. Transducers and Horns.- 6.3b. Measurements of Acoustic Power.- 6.3c. Methods for Measuring Amplitude.- 6.3d. Hydrophones.- 6.3e. Sonochemical Reactor Geometries.- 6.3f. Qualitative Considerations for Reactor Choice, Scaleup, and Optimization.- 6.4. Laser Cavitation Reactors.- 6.5. Some Additional Considerations for Flow Reactors.- 6.6. Health and Safety Aspects of Laboratory Reactors.- 6.7. Integration of Cavitation into Existing Scaled-Up Processes.- 6.8. Concluding Remarks.- 7. Models for Cavitation Reactors.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. General Considerations for a Gas-Liquid Cavitation Reactor Model.- 7.2a. Bubble Dynamics.- 7.2b. Pyrolysis Reactions in the Bubble.- 7.2c. Free Radical Reactions in the Liquid Film.- 7.3. Modeling a Batch Gas-Liquid Acoustic Reactor.- 7.3a. Physical Description.- 7.3b. Model Equations and Analysis.- 7.3c. Further Improvements in the Model.- 7.4. Characterization of the Reaction Zone.- 7.4a. Physical Description.- 7.4b. Reaction Zone based on Probability Density function.- 7.5. Reactor Design and Scaleup based on the Concept of Cavitation Yield.- 7.6. Memory Effect in a Loop Cavitation Reactor.- 7.7. Concluding Remarks.- 8. Energy Efficiency and the Economics of the Cavitation Conversion Process.- 8.1. Introduction.- 8.2. Efficiency of Energy Transformation.- 8.2a. Steps for Energy Transformation.- 8.2b. Equipment Efficiency.- 8.2c. Energy Efficiency for the Cavity Implosion.- 8.2d. Cavitation Yield Model.- 8.2e. G-Method for Energy Efficiency.- 8.2f. Case Studies.- 8.3. Economics of Cavitation Conversion Processes.- 8.3a. Case Study 1.- 8.3b. Case Study 2.- 8.3c. Sonochemistry vs. Photochemistry.- 8.4. Concluding Remarks.- 9. CAV-OX Process.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Description of Process.- 9.3. Process Economics.- 9.4. Case Studies.- Case 1. Superfund Site for Wood-Treatment, Pensacola, Florida.- Case 2. Chevron Service Station, Long Beach, California.- Case 3. Presidio Army Base, San Francisco, California.- Case 4. Chemical Plant, East Coast, United States.- Case 5. Mannesmann Anlagenbau, Salzburg, Austria.- Case 6. Steel Mill, South Korea.- Case 7. Perdue Farms, Bridgewater, Virginia.- Case 8. Southern California Edison, Los Angeles, California.- Case 9. Corporacion Mexicana de Investigacion en Materials, S.A. de C.V. (CMIMSA).- Case 10. University of Natal, Durban, South Africa.- Nomenclature.- References.