Fruit Processing

1. Introduction to fruit processing.- 1.1 Processing on a global scale.- 1.2 Factors influencing processing.- 1.3 Fruit types for processing.- 1.3.1 Pome fruits.- 1.3.2 Citrus fruits.- 1.3.3 Stone fruits.- 1.3.4 Soft fruits.- 1.4 Controlling factors in the ripening of fruit.- 1.4.1 Respiration climacteric.- 1.4.2 Ethylene production.- 1.5 Biosynthesis of flavours.- 1.5.1 Analytical data.- 1.5.2 Taste and aroma.- 1.5.3 Flavour formation.- 1.5.4 Physiological and biochemical aspects.- 1.6 Factors influencing fruit quality and crop yield.- 1.6.1 Fruit variety.- 1.6.2 External factors affecting fruit quality.- 1.7 Flavour characteristics.- 1.8 The global market: threats and opportunities.- 1.9 Fruit processing.- 2. Fruit and human nutrition.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Composition of fruits.- 2.3 The importance of fruit in the human diet.- 2.4 Changes in nutritive value during processing.- 3. Storage, ripening and handling of fruit.- 3.1 Maturing and ripening.- 3.1.1 Climacteric behaviour.- 3.1.2 Ethylene.- 3.1.3 Maturity standards.- 3.2 Temperature and respiration.- 3.2.1 Field heat removal by pre-cooling.- 3.2.2 Cool storage of fruit.- 3.2.3 General requirements of a coolroom.- 3.2.4 Mixed storage.- 3.3 Storage atmospheres.- 3.3.1 Controlled atmosphere (CA) technology.- 3.3.2 Atmosphere regeneration.- 3.3.3 Modified atmosphere technology.- 3.4 Maintaining quality.- 3.4.1 Disease.- 3.4.2 Disorders.- 3.4.3 Injury.- 4. Production of non-fermented fruit products.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Fruit quality.- 4.3 Temperate fruit juices.- 4.3.1 Orange juice.- 4.3.2 Citrus juices.- 4.3.3 Apple juice.- 4.3.4 Pear juice.- 4.3.5 Stone fruit juices.- 4.3.6 Berry juices.- 4.4 Tropical fruit juices.- 4.4.1 Pineapple juice.- 4.4.2 Papaya purée.- 4.4.3 Mango pulp.- 4.4.4 Passionfruit juice.- 4.4.5 Guava pulp.- 4.5 Clarification of fruit juices.- 4.6 Methods of preservation.- 4.6.1 Thermal treatment of the juice.- 4.6.2 Canning.- 4.6.3 Aseptic processing.- 4.6.4 Bottling.- 4.6.5 Chemical preservatives.- 4.6.6 Freezing.- 4.6.7 Filtration sterilization.- 4.7 Concentration of fruit juice.- 4.7.1 Essence recovery.- 4.7.2 Concentration.- 4.8 Products derived from fruit juice.- 4.8.1 Fruit juice drink.- 4.8.2 Fruit nectars.- 4.8.3 Carbonated beverages.- 4.9 Adulteration of fruit juice.- 5. Cider, perry, fruit wines and other alcoholic fruit beverages.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Cider.- 5.2.1 A brief history.- 5.2.2 Cider and culinary apples.- 5.2.3 Fermentation of cider.- 5.2.4 Special types of cider.- 5.2.5 The microbiology of apple juice and cider.- 5.2.6 The chemistry of cider.- 5.3 Perry (poire).- 5.4 Fruit wines.- 5.4.1 Fruits used in fruit wine manufacture.- 5.4.2 Processing of the fruit.- 5.4.3 Fermentation of fruit wines.- 5.4.4 Fruit pulp fermentations.- 5.4.5 Alcohol-fortified wines.- 5.4.6 Sparkling (carbonated) fruit wines.- 5.5 Fruit spirits and liqueurs.- 5.5.1 Fruit spirits (sic fruit brandies).- 5.5.2 Apéritifs and liqueurs.- 5.6 Miscellany.- 6. Production of thermally processed and frozen fruit.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Raw materials.- 6.3 Canning of fruit.- 6.3.1 Cannery hygiene.- 6.3.2 Factory reception.- 6.3.3 Peeling.- 6.3.4 Blanching.- 6.3.5 Choice of cans.- 6.3.6 Filling.- 6.3.7 Syrup.- 6.3.8 Cut out.- 6.3.9 Closing.- 6.3.10 Exhausting.- 6.3.11 Can vacuum.- 6.3.12 Processing.- 6.3.13 Finished pack pH values.- 6.4 Varities of fruit.- 6.4.1 Apples.- 6.4.2 Apricots.- 6.4.3 Bilberries.- 6.4.4 Blackberries.- 6.4.5 Black currants.- 6.4.6 Cherries.- 6.4.7 Gooseberries.- 6.4.8 Grapefruit.- 6.4.9 Fruit salad.- 6.4.10 Fruit cocktail.- 6.4.11 Fruit pie fillings.- 6.4.12 Loganberries.- 6.4.13 Oranges.- 6.4.14 Peaches.- 6.4.15 Pears.- 6.4.16 Pineapple.- 6.4.17 Plums and damsons.- 6.4.18 Prunes.- 6.4.19 Raspberries.- 6.4.20 Rhubarb.- 6.4.21 Strawberries.- 6.5 Bottling.- 6.6 Freezing.- 6.6.1 Freezing methods.- 6.6.2 Storage.- 6.6.3 Packaging.- 6.7 Aseptic packaging.- 6.7.1 Sterilisation/pasteurization.- 6.7.2 Packaging.- 7. The manufacture of preserves, flavourings and dried fruits.- 7.1 Preserves.- 7.1.1 Ingredients.- 7.1.2 Fruit for jam manufacture.- 7.1.3 Other ingredients.- 7.1.4 Product types and recipes.- 7.1.5 Methods of manufacture.- 7.2 Fruits preserved by sugar: glacé fruits.- 7.3 Fruits preserved by drying.- 7.3.1 Dried vine fruit production.- 7.3.2 Dried tree fruit production.- 7.4 Flavourings from fruits.- 7.5 Tomato purée.- 8. The by-products of fruit processing.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 By-products of the citrus industry.- 8.2.1 Citrus premium pulp (juice cells).- 8.2.2 Products prepared from peel and rag.- 8.2.3 Citrus oils.- 8.2.4 Comminuted juices.- 8.2.5 Dried citrus peel.- 8.3 Natural colour extraction from fruit waste.- 8.3.1 Extraction of colour from citrus peels.- 8.3.2 Extraction of colour from grapes.- 8.4 Apple waste treatment.- 8.5 Production of pectin.- 8.5.1 Characterisation of pectin and pectolytic enzymes in plants.- 8.5.2 Pectin enzymes in plants used for production of pectin.- 8.5.3 Commercial pectins and their production.- 8.5.4 Different types of pectin and their application.- 8.5.5 Application of pectin in medicine and nutrition.- 9. Water supplies, effluent disposal and other environmental considerations.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Water sourcing.- 9.3 Primary treatment.- 9.3.1 Screening.- 9.3.2 Colour removal.- 9.3.3 Adjustment of pH.- 9.3.4 Filtration.- 9.3.5 Carbon adsorption.- 9.3.6 Primary disinfection.- 9.4 Secondary treatment.- 9.4.1 Boiler feedwater.- 9.4.2 Cooling water.- 9.4.3 Water for bottle-washing.- 9.4.4 Water for fruit dressing.- 9.4.5 Water for process use.- 9.4.6 Water for special applications.- 9.4.7 Cleaning-in-place (CIP).- 9.5 Effluent planning.- 9.5.1 Segregation.- 9.5.2 Effluent transfer.- 9.5.3 Effluent reception.- 9.5.4 Treatment objectives.- 9.6 Effluent characterization.- 9.6.1 Suspended solids.- 9.6.2 Oxygen demand.- 9.6.3 Other parameters.- 9.6.4 Effluent monitoring.- 9.7 Effluent treatment.- 9.7.1 Solids removal.- 9.7.2 pH adjustment.- 9.7.3 Biological oxygen demand (BOD).- 9.8 Forms of biological treatment.- 9.8.1 The activated sludge process.- 9.8.2 Percolating ‘filters’.- 9.8.3 High-rate filtration.- 9.8.4 Mechanical contacting.- 9.9 Tertiary treatment.- 9.9.1 Filtration.- 9.9.2 Solids removal and disposal.- 9.9.3 Recovery and re-use options.- 9.10 Environmental auditing.- 9.10.1 Baseline assessment.- 9.10.2 Period review.- 9.10.3 Quality and environmental standards.