Digital Signal Processing for RFID

<p>Preface xi</p>
<p>Acknowledgements xiii</p>
<p>Abbreviations xv</p>
<p>1 Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.1 What is RFID? 1</p>
<p>1.2 A Brief History of RFID 2</p>
<p>1.3 Motivation and Scope of this Book 2</p>
<p>1.4 Notations 5</p>
<p>References 5</p>
<p>2 Fundamentals of RFID Systems 6</p>
<p>2.1 Operating Principles 6</p>
<p>2.2 Passive, Semi–Passive/Semi–Active and Active RFID 8</p>
<p>2.3 Analogue Circuits for RFID 10</p>
<p>2.4 Circuit Analysis for Signal Transfer in RFID 11</p>
<p>2.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of Antennas in Generic Communication Links 12</p>
<p>2.4.2 Load Modulation 13</p>
<p>2.4.3 Backscattering Modulation 15</p>
<p>2.5 Signal Analysis of RFID Systems 17</p>
<p>2.5.1 Qualitative Analysis 17</p>
<p>2.5.2 Quantitative Analysis 19</p>
<p>2.6 Statistical Channel Models 21</p>
<p>2.6.1 Backgrounds of Rayleigh, Ricean and Nakagami Fading 21</p>
<p>2.6.2 Statistical Channel Models of RFID Systems 26</p>
<p>2.6.3 Large Scale Path Loss 27</p>
<p>2.7 A Review of RFID Protocol 28</p>
<p>2.7.1 Physical Layer 29</p>
<p>2.7.2 MAC Layer 32</p>
<p>2.8 Challenges in RFID 36</p>
<p>2.9 Summary 36</p>
<p>Appendix 2.A Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind 37</p>
<p>References 38</p>
<p>3 Basic Signal Processing for RFID 40</p>
<p>3.1 Bandpass Filters and their Applications to RFID 40</p>
<p>3.1.1 Lowpass Filter Performance Specification 40</p>
<p>3.1.2 Lowpass Filter Design 42</p>
<p>3.1.3 Bandpass Filter Design 47</p>
<p>3.1.4 Bandpass Filters for RFID Systems 49</p>
<p>3.2 Matching Filters and their Applications to RFID 54</p>
<p>3.3 A Review of Optimal Estimation 58</p>
<p>3.3.1 Linear Least Square Estimation 58</p>
<p>3.3.2 Linear Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation 59</p>
<p>3.3.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 61</p>
<p>3.3.4 Comparison of the Three Estimation Algorithms 62</p>
<p>3.4 Summary 64</p>
<p>Appendix 3.A Derivation of Poles of the Chebyshev Filter 67</p>
<p>References 68</p>
<p>4 RFID–Oriented Modulation Schemes 69</p>
<p>4.1 A Brief Review of Analogue Modulation 69</p>
<p>4.2 Amplitude– and Phase–Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 72</p>
<p>4.2.1 M–ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 72</p>
<p>4.2.2 Symbol Error Rate Analysis of M–QAM 74</p>
<p>4.2.3 Numerical Results for M–QAM 80</p>
<p>4.3 Phase–Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 81</p>
<p>4.4 Frequency–Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 85</p>
<p>4.5 Summary 90</p>
<p>Appendix 4.A Derivation of SER Formula (4.24) 91</p>
<p>Appendix 4.B Derivation of SER Formula (4.40) 93</p>
<p>References 94</p>
<p>5 MIMO for RFID 95</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 95</p>
<p>5.2 MIMO Principle 97</p>
<p>5.3 Channel Modelling of RFID–MIMO Wireless Systems 100</p>
<p>5.4 Design of Reader Transmit Signals 102</p>
<p>5.4.1 Signal Design 102</p>
<p>5.4.2 Simulation Results 103</p>
<p>5.5 Space–Time Coding for RFID–MIMO Systems 105</p>
<p>5.5.1 A Review of Real Orthogonal Design 105</p>
<p>5.5.2 Space–Time Coding for RFID–MIMO Systems 110</p>
<p>5.5.3 Two Space–Time Decoding Approaches for RFID–MIMO Systems 111</p>
<p>5.5.4 Simulation Results 113</p>
<p>5.6 Differential Space–Time Coding for RFID–MIMO Systems 122</p>
<p>5.6.1 A Review of Unitary DSTC 122</p>
<p>5.6.2 Application of Unitary DTSC to RFID 125</p>
<p>5.6.3 Simulation Results 126</p>
<p>5.7 Summary 127</p>
<p>Appendix 5.A Alamouti Space–Time Coding for Narrowband Systems 129</p>
<p>Appendix 5.B Definition of Group 133</p>
<p>Appendix 5.C Complex Matrix/Vector Gaussian Distribution 133</p>
<p>Appendix 5.D Maximum Likelihood Receiver for Unitary STC 134</p>
<p>References 136</p>
<p>6 Blind Signal Processing for RFID 138</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 138</p>
<p>6.2 Channel Model of Multiple–Tag RFID–MIMO Systems 141</p>
<p>6.2.1 Channel Model of Single–Tag RFID–MIMO Systems 141</p>
<p>6.2.2 Channel Model of Multiple–Tag RFID–MIMO Systems 141</p>
<p>6.3 An Analytical Constant Modulus Algorithm 143</p>
<p>6.4 Application of ACMA to Multiple–Tag RFID Systems 150</p>
<p>6.5 Summary 160</p>
<p>References 164</p>
<p>7 Anti–Collision of Multiple–Tag RFID Systems 166</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 166</p>
<p>7.2 Tree–Splitting Algorithms 168</p>
<p>7.2.1 Mean Identification Delay 171</p>
<p>7.2.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach I 173</p>
<p>7.2.3 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach II 175</p>
<p>7.2.4 Numerical Results 185</p>
<p>7.2.5 Variants of TS Algorithms 194</p>
<p>7.3 Aloha–Based Algorithm 194</p>
<p>7.3.1 Mean Identification Delay 195</p>
<p>7.3.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency 197</p>
<p>7.3.3 Numerical Results 198</p>
<p>7.3.4 Adaptive Frame Size Aloha Algorithms 200</p>
<p>7.4 Summary 212</p>
<p>Appendix 7.A Inclusion–Exclusion Principle 213</p>
<p>Appendix 7.B Probability of Successful Transmissions in Some Particular Time Slots in Aloha 214</p>
<p>Appendix 7.C Probability of an Exact Number of Successful Transmissions in Aloha 215</p>
<p>References 217</p>
<p>8 Localization with RFID 220</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction 220</p>
<p>8.2 RFID Localization 223</p>
<p>8.2.1 Geometric Class 224</p>
<p>8.2.2 Proximity Class 228</p>
<p>8.3 RFID Ranging Frequency–Domain PDoA Approach 232</p>
<p>8.4 RFID AoA Finding Spatial–Domain PDoA 235</p>
<p>8.5 NLoS Issue 241</p>
<p>8.6 Summary 244</p>
<p>References 245</p>
<p>9 Some Future Perspectives for RFID 249</p>