Chris Chandler
Psychobiology
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Psychobiology provides a comprehensive, yet accessible introduction to the study of psychobiology and the key concepts, topics and research that are core to understanding the brain and the biological basis of our behaviour. Assuming no prior knowledge of biology, the text emphasises the interaction of psychobiology with other core areas of psychology and disciplines. Through the use of exciting and engaging examples, the role of psychobiology in the real world is explored and emphasisised to allow students to connect theory to practice in this fascinating subject.
Specificaties
ISBN13:9781405187435
Taal:Engels
Bindwijze:paperback
Aantal pagina's:672
Uitgever:John Wiley & Sons
Verschijningsdatum:18-9-2015
Hoofdrubriek:Mens en maatschappij
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Inhoudsopgave
Preface xix
PART I IN THE BEGINNING 1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychobiology 3
Introduction 4
What is Psychobiology? 4
Reductionism 4
History of Neuroscience 6
Psychobiology: Essential Collaboration 9
Points of View in Psychobiology 9
Physiological Psychology 9
Psychophysiology 9
Psychopharmacology 10
Neuropsychology 10
Cognitive Neuroscience 10
Social/Affective Neuroscience 10
Comparative Psychology 10
Behavioural Genetics 11
Computational Neuroscience 11
Ethics: Bioethics and Neuroethics 12
Animal Research 13
Experiments in the USA 14
Beyond the USA and UK 15
Professional Bodies: British Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association (APA) 15
Beyond the Ethics of Animal Research: The Validity of Animal Models of Behaviour 16
Good Science Versus Junk In Junk Out 20
Summary 20
CHAPTER 2 Genetics and Evolution 23
Introduction 24
In The Beginning Evolution 24
Darwin s Revolutionary Theory The Theory of Evolution 25
Evidence: The Case in Support of the Theory of Evolution 25
The Organism and the Environment 26
The Evolution of Humans 27
Evolutionary Psychology 29
From Evolution to Genetics 29
Mendelian Genetics 35
Mendelian Genetics and Eye Colour 36
Mendelian Inheritance: Huntington s Disease Dominant Allele in Action 37
Mendelian Inheritance: PKU A Recessive Allele in Action 39
Chromosomes and Inheritance 39
DNA 42
What is DNA? 43
What is the Function of DNA? 44
Genetic Variation 47
Variable Number Tandem Repeats 47
Epigenetics 50
Behavioural Genetics: The Complex Interplay of Psychology and Genetics 50
DNA and Psychology 55
Beyond Mendelian Inheritance: The Endophenotype 56
Molecular Biotechnology and Psychology 56
The Human Genome Project 57
Summary 59
CHAPTER 3 Neural Development 61
Introduction 62
General Development 62
Neural Development over the Lifespan 62
PART I IN THE BEGINNING 1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychobiology 3
Introduction 4
What is Psychobiology? 4
Reductionism 4
History of Neuroscience 6
Psychobiology: Essential Collaboration 9
Points of View in Psychobiology 9
Physiological Psychology 9
Psychophysiology 9
Psychopharmacology 10
Neuropsychology 10
Cognitive Neuroscience 10
Social/Affective Neuroscience 10
Comparative Psychology 10
Behavioural Genetics 11
Computational Neuroscience 11
Ethics: Bioethics and Neuroethics 12
Animal Research 13
Experiments in the USA 14
Beyond the USA and UK 15
Professional Bodies: British Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association (APA) 15
Beyond the Ethics of Animal Research: The Validity of Animal Models of Behaviour 16
Good Science Versus Junk In Junk Out 20
Summary 20
CHAPTER 2 Genetics and Evolution 23
Introduction 24
In The Beginning Evolution 24
Darwin s Revolutionary Theory The Theory of Evolution 25
Evidence: The Case in Support of the Theory of Evolution 25
The Organism and the Environment 26
The Evolution of Humans 27
Evolutionary Psychology 29
From Evolution to Genetics 29
Mendelian Genetics 35
Mendelian Genetics and Eye Colour 36
Mendelian Inheritance: Huntington s Disease Dominant Allele in Action 37
Mendelian Inheritance: PKU A Recessive Allele in Action 39
Chromosomes and Inheritance 39
DNA 42
What is DNA? 43
What is the Function of DNA? 44
Genetic Variation 47
Variable Number Tandem Repeats 47
Epigenetics 50
Behavioural Genetics: The Complex Interplay of Psychology and Genetics 50
DNA and Psychology 55
Beyond Mendelian Inheritance: The Endophenotype 56
Molecular Biotechnology and Psychology 56
The Human Genome Project 57
Summary 59
CHAPTER 3 Neural Development 61
Introduction 62
General Development 62
Neural Development over the Lifespan 62
Neural Development 64
Developmental Changes in the Brain 64
Development of The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 71
Development of The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 71
Male and Female Brains 71
Adolescent Development 71
Adult Development 75
Critical Periods 76
Teratology 78
Summary 80
CHAPTER 4 The Neuron, The Endocrine System and Communication 83
Introduction 84
Neurons 84
Inside the Cell: Atoms at the Heart of Life 84
Neurons: Structure and Function 84
Support Cells 89
Glial Cells 89
Types of Neurons 90
Signalling and Communication Within the Neuron 90
Electrical Communication 90
Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Synaptic Transmission 99
Neurotransmitters 101
Receptors 102
Synaptic and Cellular Regulation 104
Retrograde Signalling 107
Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Gap Junctions 108
Endocrinology: Studying Long–Distance Communication 109
Action of Hormones at Their Target 113
Regulation 114
Summary 114
CHAPTER 5 Neuroanatomy and The Nervous System 117
Introduction 118
The Nervous Systems 118
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 118
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 120
The Central Nervous System (CNS) 126
Neuroanatomy 130
White and Grey Matter 131
Spatial Relationships of the Brain and Spinal Cord 132
Brain Regions 132
Forebrain: Telencephalon and Diencephalon 132
The Limbic System (and Hippocampus) 141
The Basal Ganglia 143
Midbrain: Mesencephalon 143
Hindbrain: Metencephalon and Myelencephalon 143
The Ins and Outs of Blood Supply to the Brain 145
Arterial Supply of Oxygenated Blood 147
The Cerebral Arterial Circle: The Circle of Willis 149
Sinuses 149
Endocrine System 150
The Pituitary Gland 150
Summary 150
CHAPTER 6 Psychobiology and Neuroscience Methods 153
Introduction 154
Physiological Psychology 154
Neuropsycho–Pharmacology 157
Unilateral and Bilateral Lesions 158
Psychophysiology 158
The Electroencephalogram 158
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 158
Event–related Potentials 159
Beyond the Brain 160
Brain Imaging 161
Nuclear Imaging Using Radioactivity and Radioactive Isotopes 161
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 164
Optical Imaging of the Brain 166
Neuroimaging is not the Ultimate Evidence 166
Neuroimaging Maps of the Mind 168
Psychophysiology and Neuroimaging Combined 168
Virtual Lesions Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 169
Summary 169
CHAPTER 7 Psychopharmacology 173
Introduction 174
Drug Classification 174
Drug Action 177
Pharmacokinetics 177
Pharmacodynamics 185
Types of Drugs 193
Stimulants 194
Depressants 194
Mind–Altering Drugs 196
Antidepressants 197
Antipsychotics 197
Psychopharmacology The Dark Side 197
Clinical Trials 199
Summary 201
CHAPTER 8 Animal Learning 203
Introduction 204
Learning Theory: Adaptations and Associations 205
Habituation 205
Reflexes 207
Classical Conditioning 208
Measuring the Conditioned Response 209
Acquisition 209
Extinction 209
Spontaneous Recovery 209
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination 210
Is the Conditioned Response Identical to the Unconditioned Response? 210
The Relationship between the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus 211
Delay Conditioning 212
Simultaneous Conditioning 212
Backward Conditioning 213
Trace Conditioning 214
Temporal Conditioning 214
Latent Inhibition 215
Blocking 215
The Rescorla Wagner Model 215
Applications of Classical Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 215
Operant Conditioning 216
The Law of Effect 217
Behaviourism 217
Acquisition 221
Shaping and Conditioning by Successive Approximations 221
Extinction 221
Spontaneous Recovery 221
Discrimination and Generalization 221
Interoceptive and Exteroceptive Stimuli 221
Applications of Operant Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 224
Cognition in Animals 224
Summary 225
CHAPTER 9 Drugs and Behaviour: Behaviour and Drugs 227
Introduction 228
Schedules as Fundamental Determinants of Drug–Elicited Behaviour 228
Tolerance 230
Sensitization 233
The Placebo 233
Conscious Processes 238
Unconscious Processes 241
Summary 243
PART II PSYCHOBIOLOGY: BRINGING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR TOGETHER 249
CHAPTER 10 Perceptual Systems 251
Introduction 252
The Sensory Modalities 252
Vision and Visual Perception 252
The Eye 253
The Sclera and Cornea 253
Aqueous Humour 255
The Iris and Pupil 255
The Lens 255
Vitreous Humour 255
The Retina 255
The Optic Nerve 261
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 261
The Visual Cortex 263
Colour Perception 266
Binocular Vision: Two Eyes and Two Hemispheres 270
A Summary of Visual Perception 271
Hearing and Auditory Perception 272
The Ear 273
The Auditory Nerve and Cortex 274
Smelling and Olfactory Perception 275
The Nasal Membrane 275
Tasting and the Gustatory System 276
The Tongue and Mouth 276
The Vestibular System 277
Feeling and Somatosensation 279
The Skin 279
The Transmission of Tactile Stimuli to the Brain 279
Nociception and the Perception of Pain 279
Why Pain? 281
Components of Pain 281
Receptors 281
Pain Fibres 281
Pathways 282
Descending Pathways 284
Endogenous Analgesia 286
Pain Control 286
Masochism 290
The Hard Question 291
Sensory Integration 291
Summary 291
CHAPTER 11 Motor Behaviour and Control 293
Introduction 294
Regions of the Brain 294
The Motor Cortex 294
The Premotor Cortex 295
Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) 297
Presupplementary Motor Area (Pre–SMA) 297
Cingulate Motor Area 297
Broca s Area 297
Frontal Eye Fields 297
The Basal Ganglia 298
The Cerebellum 301
Brainstem 302
Descending Pathways 302
The Pyramidal System 305
The Extrapyramidal System 305
Passage of Information to Muscles 305
The Skeleton 306
The Muscles 306
Neurochemical Activation of the Muscles 307
Feedback 309
Control and Agency 309
Summary 309
CHAPTER 12 Executive Functions 315
Introduction 316
Frontal Lobe Evolution and the Cerebral Localization of Humanity 316
Lesions And Imaging 317
The Frontal Lobes: Damage and the Dysexecutive Syndrome 322
Thinking 322
Rule Learning, Planning and Problem Solving 323
Error Utilization 327
Attention 327
Theories Describing Frontal Lobe Function 328
Theory of Mind: Mind Reading (or Knowing Me, Knowing You (Aha)) 328
Just Say No The Case of Free Won t 329
Summary 339
CHAPTER 13 Neural Plasticity and Memory 343
Introduction 344
Memory: What is it and Where is it? 344
Amnesia 345
The Neural Basis of Memory 353
The Neural Bases of Learning: Long–Term Potentiation (LTP)
and Long–Term Depression (LTD) 353
What Happens at the Neural Level? 353
Neuroplasticity 355
Summary 356
CHAPTER 14 Sex 359
Introduction 360
Evolution of Sex and the Sexes 360
Differentiation of the Sexes 361
Female Genitalia 361
Male Genitalia 365
Sex Hormones 368
Menstrual Cycle and Ovulation 369
Sexual Development 373
The Male and Female Brain 373
What Regions of the Brain are Different in the Sexes? 377
What Happens During Sexual Arousal? 380
Evolution of Pleasure 386
Sexual orientation 386
Summary 388
CHAPTER 15 The Neural Regulation of Homeostasis: Feeding and Drinking 391
Introduction 392
Feeding Behaviour 392
Brain Mechanisms for Eating 397
Eating Disorders 401
Psychological Factors which Influence Eating 405
Drinking and Thirst 406
Brain Mechanisms in Thirst 406
Summary 406
CHAPTER 16 Motivation 409
Introduction 410
Drug Addiction: The Triumph of Motivation Over Reason 410
What is Addiction? 412
A Reward Pathway: A Common Denominator in Addiction and Motivation 413
Intracranial self–stimulation 413
Drug self–administration 416
Amphetamine, Cocaine and Nicotine 416
Natural Reinforcers 419
Theories of Addiction Theories of Motivation 419
Positive reinforcement 421
Sensitization 421
Physical dependence theories and negative reinforcement 423
Just say no 427
Motivation, addiction and learning 429
Which Theory is Correct? 430
Summary 431
CHAPTER 17 Emotion 435
Introduction 436
What is Emotion? 436
Facial Expression 438
Physiological/Psychological Theories of Emotion 443
James Lange Theory of Emotion 443
Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion 443
Schachter s Cognitive Labelling Theory of Emotion 446
The Emotional Brain 447
Papez Circuit 447
The Temporal Lobe and Limbic System in Emotion 447
The Amygdala 448
The Hippocampus and Fear 450
Fear or Fear Conditioning 450
Beyond Fear 452
Conceptual Act Model of Emotion 452
Rolls Reinforcement Model of Emotion 454
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis of Emotion 456
Emotion: What s Love Got To Do With It? 456
Love is the Drug 457
Aggression and Violence 458
Neural Mechanisms and Aggression 458
Hormones and Aggression 459
Stress 459
Emotion and Music: Beyond Emotion as an Evolutionary Adaptation (Or Not) 459
Summary 461
CHAPTER 18 Sleep and Consciousness 463
Introduction 464
Circadian Rhythms 464
Sleep 465
Sleep Architecture 465
The Stages of Sleep 465
The Neural Mechanisms of Sleep 468
Neurotransmitters and Sleep 468
Dreams 469
Theories of Sleep 470
Why Do We Need to Sleep? 470
Sleep Disorders and Mental Health 470
Consciousness 472
Who are We and What Do We feel? What is It to Think? 472
Free Will 474
Summary 481
CHAPTER 19 Lateralization and Language 483
Introduction 484
Lateralization: Neuroanatomy 484
Functional Lateralization 486
Asymmetry and Sex 489
Is Functional Lateralization Fixed? 490
Split Brains 490
Summary 496
PART III THE PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 499
CHAPTER 20 Developmental Disorders 503
Introduction 504
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 504
Diagnostic Criteria 504
Structural Changes in the Brain 506
Functional Neuroimaging of ADHD 506
Psychophysiological Studies 506
Frontostriatal Circuits 507
Pharmacology and Efficacy of Psychostimulants used in treating ADHD 507
Psychopharmacology: From Treatment to Theory 509
Barkley s Neuropsychological Account Behavioural Inhibition 511
Working Memory 513
Autism Spectrum Disorder 515
Diagnostic Criteria 515
The Genetics of ASD 515
Structural Neuroimaging in the Brain 518
Functional Neuroimaging of ASD 518
Neurochemistry and Psychopharmacology of ASD 519
Theories of ASD 519
Summary 520
CHAPTER 21 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 523
Introduction 524
Genetics of Schizophrenia 525
Neurochemistry of Schizophrenia 529
Typical and Atypical Antipsychotics 532
Neurobiological Theories 534
Neuropsychological Theories 535
Limitations of Many Studies in Schizophrenia 537
Summary 537
CHAPTER 22 Affective Disorders 541
Introduction 542
What causes depression? 545
Genetics of Depression 545
Neurochemistry of Depression 548
Noradrenergic Hypothesis of Depression 548
Serotonin Hypothesis of Depression 550
Treatments for Depression 552
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 552
Atypical Antidepressants 552
Selective Noradrenergic Reuptake Inhibitors 552
Dual Action Antidepressants 552
Electroconvulsive Therapy 553
Lithium 553
Neuroanatomy of Depression 553
Is there a Common Denominator in all the Treatments for Depression? 554
Summary 556
CHAPTER 23 Stress and Anxiety 559
Introduction 560
Stress 560
What is Stress? 561
The Stress Response 563
Input of the Stress Response 564
Sympathetic–adrenomedullary axis (SAM) 565
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis 566
Homeostasis Versus Allostasis (Acute Versus Chronic Stress) 569
Anxiety 571
Neurobiology 576
GABA and Anxiety 576
Barbiturates 576
Benzodiazepines 578
Noradrenaline 580
Serotonin 580
A Neuropsychological Theory of Anxiety 581
Summary 582
CHAPTER 24 Neurodegeneration 583
Introduction 584
Subcortical Neurodegeneration: Parkinson s Disease 584
Neuropathology 586
Neuropharmacology 586
Neuropsychology 589
Cortical Neurodegeneration: Alzheimer s Disease 593
Neuropathology 594
Neuropharmacology 596
Neuropsychology 598
Summary 600
CHAPTER 25 Psychobiology: Implications for the Brave New World 603
Introduction 604
Policy 604
Diagnosis 606
Treatment 606
Education 607
Law 608
Summary 610
Glossary 613
Index 635
Developmental Changes in the Brain 64
Development of The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 71
Development of The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 71
Male and Female Brains 71
Adolescent Development 71
Adult Development 75
Critical Periods 76
Teratology 78
Summary 80
CHAPTER 4 The Neuron, The Endocrine System and Communication 83
Introduction 84
Neurons 84
Inside the Cell: Atoms at the Heart of Life 84
Neurons: Structure and Function 84
Support Cells 89
Glial Cells 89
Types of Neurons 90
Signalling and Communication Within the Neuron 90
Electrical Communication 90
Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Synaptic Transmission 99
Neurotransmitters 101
Receptors 102
Synaptic and Cellular Regulation 104
Retrograde Signalling 107
Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Gap Junctions 108
Endocrinology: Studying Long–Distance Communication 109
Action of Hormones at Their Target 113
Regulation 114
Summary 114
CHAPTER 5 Neuroanatomy and The Nervous System 117
Introduction 118
The Nervous Systems 118
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 118
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 120
The Central Nervous System (CNS) 126
Neuroanatomy 130
White and Grey Matter 131
Spatial Relationships of the Brain and Spinal Cord 132
Brain Regions 132
Forebrain: Telencephalon and Diencephalon 132
The Limbic System (and Hippocampus) 141
The Basal Ganglia 143
Midbrain: Mesencephalon 143
Hindbrain: Metencephalon and Myelencephalon 143
The Ins and Outs of Blood Supply to the Brain 145
Arterial Supply of Oxygenated Blood 147
The Cerebral Arterial Circle: The Circle of Willis 149
Sinuses 149
Endocrine System 150
The Pituitary Gland 150
Summary 150
CHAPTER 6 Psychobiology and Neuroscience Methods 153
Introduction 154
Physiological Psychology 154
Neuropsycho–Pharmacology 157
Unilateral and Bilateral Lesions 158
Psychophysiology 158
The Electroencephalogram 158
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 158
Event–related Potentials 159
Beyond the Brain 160
Brain Imaging 161
Nuclear Imaging Using Radioactivity and Radioactive Isotopes 161
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 164
Optical Imaging of the Brain 166
Neuroimaging is not the Ultimate Evidence 166
Neuroimaging Maps of the Mind 168
Psychophysiology and Neuroimaging Combined 168
Virtual Lesions Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 169
Summary 169
CHAPTER 7 Psychopharmacology 173
Introduction 174
Drug Classification 174
Drug Action 177
Pharmacokinetics 177
Pharmacodynamics 185
Types of Drugs 193
Stimulants 194
Depressants 194
Mind–Altering Drugs 196
Antidepressants 197
Antipsychotics 197
Psychopharmacology The Dark Side 197
Clinical Trials 199
Summary 201
CHAPTER 8 Animal Learning 203
Introduction 204
Learning Theory: Adaptations and Associations 205
Habituation 205
Reflexes 207
Classical Conditioning 208
Measuring the Conditioned Response 209
Acquisition 209
Extinction 209
Spontaneous Recovery 209
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination 210
Is the Conditioned Response Identical to the Unconditioned Response? 210
The Relationship between the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus 211
Delay Conditioning 212
Simultaneous Conditioning 212
Backward Conditioning 213
Trace Conditioning 214
Temporal Conditioning 214
Latent Inhibition 215
Blocking 215
The Rescorla Wagner Model 215
Applications of Classical Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 215
Operant Conditioning 216
The Law of Effect 217
Behaviourism 217
Acquisition 221
Shaping and Conditioning by Successive Approximations 221
Extinction 221
Spontaneous Recovery 221
Discrimination and Generalization 221
Interoceptive and Exteroceptive Stimuli 221
Applications of Operant Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 224
Cognition in Animals 224
Summary 225
CHAPTER 9 Drugs and Behaviour: Behaviour and Drugs 227
Introduction 228
Schedules as Fundamental Determinants of Drug–Elicited Behaviour 228
Tolerance 230
Sensitization 233
The Placebo 233
Conscious Processes 238
Unconscious Processes 241
Summary 243
PART II PSYCHOBIOLOGY: BRINGING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR TOGETHER 249
CHAPTER 10 Perceptual Systems 251
Introduction 252
The Sensory Modalities 252
Vision and Visual Perception 252
The Eye 253
The Sclera and Cornea 253
Aqueous Humour 255
The Iris and Pupil 255
The Lens 255
Vitreous Humour 255
The Retina 255
The Optic Nerve 261
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 261
The Visual Cortex 263
Colour Perception 266
Binocular Vision: Two Eyes and Two Hemispheres 270
A Summary of Visual Perception 271
Hearing and Auditory Perception 272
The Ear 273
The Auditory Nerve and Cortex 274
Smelling and Olfactory Perception 275
The Nasal Membrane 275
Tasting and the Gustatory System 276
The Tongue and Mouth 276
The Vestibular System 277
Feeling and Somatosensation 279
The Skin 279
The Transmission of Tactile Stimuli to the Brain 279
Nociception and the Perception of Pain 279
Why Pain? 281
Components of Pain 281
Receptors 281
Pain Fibres 281
Pathways 282
Descending Pathways 284
Endogenous Analgesia 286
Pain Control 286
Masochism 290
The Hard Question 291
Sensory Integration 291
Summary 291
CHAPTER 11 Motor Behaviour and Control 293
Introduction 294
Regions of the Brain 294
The Motor Cortex 294
The Premotor Cortex 295
Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) 297
Presupplementary Motor Area (Pre–SMA) 297
Cingulate Motor Area 297
Broca s Area 297
Frontal Eye Fields 297
The Basal Ganglia 298
The Cerebellum 301
Brainstem 302
Descending Pathways 302
The Pyramidal System 305
The Extrapyramidal System 305
Passage of Information to Muscles 305
The Skeleton 306
The Muscles 306
Neurochemical Activation of the Muscles 307
Feedback 309
Control and Agency 309
Summary 309
CHAPTER 12 Executive Functions 315
Introduction 316
Frontal Lobe Evolution and the Cerebral Localization of Humanity 316
Lesions And Imaging 317
The Frontal Lobes: Damage and the Dysexecutive Syndrome 322
Thinking 322
Rule Learning, Planning and Problem Solving 323
Error Utilization 327
Attention 327
Theories Describing Frontal Lobe Function 328
Theory of Mind: Mind Reading (or Knowing Me, Knowing You (Aha)) 328
Just Say No The Case of Free Won t 329
Summary 339
CHAPTER 13 Neural Plasticity and Memory 343
Introduction 344
Memory: What is it and Where is it? 344
Amnesia 345
The Neural Basis of Memory 353
The Neural Bases of Learning: Long–Term Potentiation (LTP)
and Long–Term Depression (LTD) 353
What Happens at the Neural Level? 353
Neuroplasticity 355
Summary 356
CHAPTER 14 Sex 359
Introduction 360
Evolution of Sex and the Sexes 360
Differentiation of the Sexes 361
Female Genitalia 361
Male Genitalia 365
Sex Hormones 368
Menstrual Cycle and Ovulation 369
Sexual Development 373
The Male and Female Brain 373
What Regions of the Brain are Different in the Sexes? 377
What Happens During Sexual Arousal? 380
Evolution of Pleasure 386
Sexual orientation 386
Summary 388
CHAPTER 15 The Neural Regulation of Homeostasis: Feeding and Drinking 391
Introduction 392
Feeding Behaviour 392
Brain Mechanisms for Eating 397
Eating Disorders 401
Psychological Factors which Influence Eating 405
Drinking and Thirst 406
Brain Mechanisms in Thirst 406
Summary 406
CHAPTER 16 Motivation 409
Introduction 410
Drug Addiction: The Triumph of Motivation Over Reason 410
What is Addiction? 412
A Reward Pathway: A Common Denominator in Addiction and Motivation 413
Intracranial self–stimulation 413
Drug self–administration 416
Amphetamine, Cocaine and Nicotine 416
Natural Reinforcers 419
Theories of Addiction Theories of Motivation 419
Positive reinforcement 421
Sensitization 421
Physical dependence theories and negative reinforcement 423
Just say no 427
Motivation, addiction and learning 429
Which Theory is Correct? 430
Summary 431
CHAPTER 17 Emotion 435
Introduction 436
What is Emotion? 436
Facial Expression 438
Physiological/Psychological Theories of Emotion 443
James Lange Theory of Emotion 443
Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion 443
Schachter s Cognitive Labelling Theory of Emotion 446
The Emotional Brain 447
Papez Circuit 447
The Temporal Lobe and Limbic System in Emotion 447
The Amygdala 448
The Hippocampus and Fear 450
Fear or Fear Conditioning 450
Beyond Fear 452
Conceptual Act Model of Emotion 452
Rolls Reinforcement Model of Emotion 454
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis of Emotion 456
Emotion: What s Love Got To Do With It? 456
Love is the Drug 457
Aggression and Violence 458
Neural Mechanisms and Aggression 458
Hormones and Aggression 459
Stress 459
Emotion and Music: Beyond Emotion as an Evolutionary Adaptation (Or Not) 459
Summary 461
CHAPTER 18 Sleep and Consciousness 463
Introduction 464
Circadian Rhythms 464
Sleep 465
Sleep Architecture 465
The Stages of Sleep 465
The Neural Mechanisms of Sleep 468
Neurotransmitters and Sleep 468
Dreams 469
Theories of Sleep 470
Why Do We Need to Sleep? 470
Sleep Disorders and Mental Health 470
Consciousness 472
Who are We and What Do We feel? What is It to Think? 472
Free Will 474
Summary 481
CHAPTER 19 Lateralization and Language 483
Introduction 484
Lateralization: Neuroanatomy 484
Functional Lateralization 486
Asymmetry and Sex 489
Is Functional Lateralization Fixed? 490
Split Brains 490
Summary 496
PART III THE PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 499
CHAPTER 20 Developmental Disorders 503
Introduction 504
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 504
Diagnostic Criteria 504
Structural Changes in the Brain 506
Functional Neuroimaging of ADHD 506
Psychophysiological Studies 506
Frontostriatal Circuits 507
Pharmacology and Efficacy of Psychostimulants used in treating ADHD 507
Psychopharmacology: From Treatment to Theory 509
Barkley s Neuropsychological Account Behavioural Inhibition 511
Working Memory 513
Autism Spectrum Disorder 515
Diagnostic Criteria 515
The Genetics of ASD 515
Structural Neuroimaging in the Brain 518
Functional Neuroimaging of ASD 518
Neurochemistry and Psychopharmacology of ASD 519
Theories of ASD 519
Summary 520
CHAPTER 21 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 523
Introduction 524
Genetics of Schizophrenia 525
Neurochemistry of Schizophrenia 529
Typical and Atypical Antipsychotics 532
Neurobiological Theories 534
Neuropsychological Theories 535
Limitations of Many Studies in Schizophrenia 537
Summary 537
CHAPTER 22 Affective Disorders 541
Introduction 542
What causes depression? 545
Genetics of Depression 545
Neurochemistry of Depression 548
Noradrenergic Hypothesis of Depression 548
Serotonin Hypothesis of Depression 550
Treatments for Depression 552
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 552
Atypical Antidepressants 552
Selective Noradrenergic Reuptake Inhibitors 552
Dual Action Antidepressants 552
Electroconvulsive Therapy 553
Lithium 553
Neuroanatomy of Depression 553
Is there a Common Denominator in all the Treatments for Depression? 554
Summary 556
CHAPTER 23 Stress and Anxiety 559
Introduction 560
Stress 560
What is Stress? 561
The Stress Response 563
Input of the Stress Response 564
Sympathetic–adrenomedullary axis (SAM) 565
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis 566
Homeostasis Versus Allostasis (Acute Versus Chronic Stress) 569
Anxiety 571
Neurobiology 576
GABA and Anxiety 576
Barbiturates 576
Benzodiazepines 578
Noradrenaline 580
Serotonin 580
A Neuropsychological Theory of Anxiety 581
Summary 582
CHAPTER 24 Neurodegeneration 583
Introduction 584
Subcortical Neurodegeneration: Parkinson s Disease 584
Neuropathology 586
Neuropharmacology 586
Neuropsychology 589
Cortical Neurodegeneration: Alzheimer s Disease 593
Neuropathology 594
Neuropharmacology 596
Neuropsychology 598
Summary 600
CHAPTER 25 Psychobiology: Implications for the Brave New World 603
Introduction 604
Policy 604
Diagnosis 606
Treatment 606
Education 607
Law 608
Summary 610
Glossary 613
Index 635
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