Soybeans

1. Argonomic Characteristics, Production, and Marketing.- I. Origin.- II. Early History in Europe.- III. Early History in North America.- IV. Agronomic Characteristics.- A. Seed Morphology.- B. Germination and Seedling Development.- C. Growing Stages and Maturity Groups.- D. Seed Development.- E. Nitrogen Fixation.- F. Diseases and Pests.- V. Harvesting, Drying, and Storage.- A. Harvesting.- B. Drying.- C. Storage.- VI. Marketing and Trading.- VII. Grades, Standards, and Inspection.- VII. Variety Identification.- IX. Food Beans and Oil Beans.- References.- 2. Chemistry and Nutritional Value of Soybean Components.- I. Proximate Composition.- II. Lipids.- A. Triglycerides.- 1. Fatty Acid Composition.- 2. Geometric Configuration.- 3. Positional Distribution.- B. Phospholipids.- C. Nutritional Value of Soybean Oil.- 1. Essential Fatty Acids.- 2. Health Implications of Individual Fatty Acids.- 3. Health Implications of trans Fatty Acids.- III. Proteins.- A. Protein Classification and Nomenclature.- B. Isolation of Major Storage Proteins.- 1. Protein Bodies.- 2. Isolation Procedures.- C. Characterization of Major Storage Proteins.- 1. ?-Conglycinin (7S Globulin).- 2. Glycinin (11 S Fraction).- 3. Differences between 7S and 11S Globulins.- D. Trypsin Inhibitors.- 1. Types of Inhibitors in Soybeans.- 2. Health Implications.- 3. Elimination.- 4. Assay Methodology.- E. Lectin.- F. Lipoxygenases.- 1. Occurrences.- 2. Oxidative Reaction and Off-Flavor Formation.- 3. Other Features.- 4. Elimination.- 5. Assay Methods.- G. Nutritional Quality of Soy Protein.- 1. Amino Acid Requirements for Humans and Animals.- 2. Amino Acid Composition of Soy Protein.- 3. Protein Digestibility.- 4. Methods for Assaying Protein Quality.- 5. Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Soy Protein.- 6. Allergenicity of Soy Protein.- IV. Carbohydrates.- A. Soluble Carbohydrates.- B. Insoluble Carbohydrates.- V. Minor Components.- A. Minerals.- B. Vitamins.- C. Phytate.- 1. Occurrence.- 2. Nutritional Implications.- 3. Effects on Cooking Quality.- 4. Elimination.- 5. Assay Methods.- D. Isoflavones.- 1. Occurrences.- 2. Effects of Processing.- 3. Physiological Effects on Humans and Animals.- 4. Assay Methods.- VI. Soy Hulls.- VII. Hypocotyl Axis.- References.- 3. Biological and Compositional Changes during Soybean Maturation, Storage, and Germination.- I. Changes during Soybean Maturation.- A. Dry Matter and Proximate Composition.- B. Fatty Acid Composition.- C. Vitamins.- D. Biologically Active Components.- E. Food Values of Immature Soybeans.- II. Biological Aging during Soybean Storage.- A. Storage-Induced Protein Changes.- B. Other Changes.- C. Effects on Quality of Soy Products.- D. Mechanisms of Biological Aging.- E. Prevention of Storage-Induced Quality Loss.- III. Changes during Soybean Germination.- A. Dry Matter and Proximate Composition.- B. Fatty Acid Composition.- C. Amino Acid Composition.- D. Vitamins.- E. Biologically Active Components.- F. Food Values of Germinated Soybeans.- References.- 4. Nonfermented Oriental Soyfoods.- I. Soymilk.- A. Traditional Soymilk Preparation Methods.- B. Chemistry of Beany Flavors.- C. Modern Soymilk Preparation Methods.- 1. Cornell Method.- 2. Illinois Method.- 3. Rapid Hydration Hydrothermal Cooking.- 4. Methods Using Defatted Soy Material.- 5. Deodorization Techniques.- 6. Commercial Methods.- 7. Novel Approaches.- D. Basic Steps and Principles of Soymilk Preparation.- 1. Starting Material.- 2. Water Incorporation.- 3. Grinding.- 4. Soymilk Extraction.- 5. Heat Treatment.- 6. Formulation and Fortification.- 7. Final Processing and Packaging.- 8. Additional Processing.- E. Other Constraints.- 1. Objectionable Aftertaste.- 2. Chalkiness.- 3. Yields.- F. Standardization of Soymilk.- II. Tofu.- A. Tofu Preparation Methods.- 1. Traditional Methods.- 2. Variations in Tofu Preparation Methods.- B. Tofu Varieties.- C. Quality and Quantity Attributes of Tofu.- D. Factors Affecting Tofu Making.- 1. Soybean Varieties and Compositions.- 2. Temperature of Grinding Soybeans.- 3. Concentration of Soymilk.- 4. Heat Processing of Soymilk and Tofu Gelation Mechanism.- 5. Types of Coagulants.- 6. Concentration of Coagulants.- 7. Coagulation Temperature.- 8. Mode of Adding Coagulants.- 9. Coagulation Time.- 10. Molding Conditions.- 11. Other Factors.- 12. Tofu Made from Full-Fat Soy Flakes.- 13. Novel Treatments.- E. Microbiological Safety.- III. Yuba.- A. Preparation.- B. Chemical Composition.- C. Varieties.- D. Utilization.- E. Mechanism of Film Formation.- F. Conditions for Film Formation and Their Optimization.- IV. Other Nonfermented Soyfoods.- A. Soybean Sprouts.- B. Okara.- C. Roasted Soybeans, Soynuts, and Soy Flour.- D. Cooked Whole Soybeans.- E. Immature Soybeans.- References.- 5. Fermented Oriental Soyfoods.- I. Fermented Soy Paste (Jiang and Miso).- A. Varieties of Miso and Jiang.- B. Koji and Microorganisms Involved.- C. Koji Starter and Its Preparation.- D. Chinese Jiang Preparation.- 1. Traditional Household Method.- 2. Pure Culture Method.- 3. Enzymatic Method.- E. Japanese Miso Preparation.- 1. Rice Koji Preparation.- 2. Treatment of Soybeans.- 3. Mixing and Mashing.- 4. Fermentation.- 5. Pasteurization and Packaging.- F. Principles of Jiang and Miso Preparations.- G. Major Factors in Jiang and Miso Making.- 1. Raw Materials.- 2. Cooking Temperature and Time.- 3. Conditions during Koji Preparation.- 4. Proportions of Ingredients.- 5. Fermentation Conditions.- 6. Novel Processing for Special Products.- II. Soy Sauce (Jiangyou or Shoyu).- A. Varieties of Soy Sauce.- B. Soy Sauce Processing.- 1. Traditional Chinese Household Method.- 2. Modern Chinese Method.- 3. Processing of Japanese Shoyu.- 4. Comparison of Soy Sauce and Jiang or Miso Preparations.- C. Principles of Making Soy Sauce.- 1. Action of Koji Enzymes.- 2. Fermentation by Lactic Bacteria and Yeasts.- 3. Color and Flavor Formation.- 4. Glutaminase and Glutamic Acid.- D. Chemical Soy Sauce.- E. Progress in Soy Sauce Preparation.- 1. Use of Defatted Soy Grits or Flakes.- 2. Improvements in Treating Soybeans.- 3. Development of an Automatic Koji-Making System.- 4. Application of Microorganisms with Specific Activities.- 5. Techniques to Shorten Production Time.- 6. Improvements in Soy Sauce Clarification.- F. Chemical Composition, Quality Attributes, and Standardization.- G. Mycotoxins.- III. Tempeh.- A. Varieties of Tempeh.- B. Preparation.- 1. Traditional Method.- 2. Pilot Plant Method.- 3. Petri Dish Method.- C. Microorganisms Involved.- D. Factors Affecting Tempeh Fermentation.- 1. Starter.- 2. Dehulling and Aeration.- 3. Moisture.- 4. Temperatures.- 5. Acidity.- 6. Losses of Solids.- E. Changes during Fermentation.- 1. General Changes.- 2. Protein.- 3. Lipid.- 4. Carbohydrates and Other Constituents.- F. Production of Vitamins.- G. Storage.- H. Nutritional Value.- IV. Natto.- A. Preparation.- B. Microorganisms Involved.- C. Factors Affecting Natto Quality.- 1. Raw Material.- 2. Soybean Cooking Conditions.- 3. Storage.- D. Changes during Fermentation.- E. Trends in Research on Natto and B. natto.- 1. Development of Novel Strains of B. subtilis.- 2. Purification and Characterization of Key Enzymes.- 3. Studies into Genes Encoding Key Enzymes of B. subtilis.- 4. Studies of Possible Physiological Roles of Natto.- V. Soy Nuggets (Douchi or Hamanatto).- VI. Sufu.- A. Preparation.- B. Types of Sufu.- C. Microorganisms Involved.- D. Effect of Mold Growth.- E. Effect of Brine Aging.- References.- 6. Soybean Oil Extraction and Processing Andrew Proctor.- I. Preparation before Extraction.- A. Cleaning.- B. Drying.- C. Cracking and Debulling.- D. Conditioning.- E. Flaking.- F. Innovations in Preextraction Technology.- II. Solvent Extraction.- A. Solvents.- B. Extraction Theory.- C. Extraction Equipment.- D. Miscella Stripping.- E. Desolventizing Soymeal.- F. Storing and Handling Crude Soy Oil.- III. Mechanical Extraction.- IV. Oil Refining.- A. Degumming.- B. Neutralization.- 1. Alkali Refining.- 2. Zenith Refining System.- 3. Physical Steam Refining.- 4. Miscella Refining.- C. Bleaching.- 1. Adsorption Theory.- 2. Bleaching Procedure.- 3. Effects of Adsorbents.- 4. Effect of Bleaching Conditions.- 5. Innovations in Bleaching.- D. Deodorization.- 1. Deodorization Theory.- 2. Deodorization Procedures.- V. Optional Additional Processing.- A. Hydrogenation.- 1. The Hydrogenation Reaction.- 2. Selectivity.- 3. Positional Isomers.- 4. Geometrical Isomers.- 5. Hydrogenation Catalysts.- 6. Hydrogenation Equipment.- B. lnteresterification.- 1. Chemical Interesterification.- 2. Directed Interesterification.- 3. Enzymatic Interesterification.- C. Winterization.- D. Fractionation.- VI. Lecithin Processing.- VII. Plant and Environmental Safety.- A. Plant Safety.- B. Environmental Safety.- 1. Wastewater Control.- 2. Solid Waste Disposal.- 3. Air Pollution Control.- References.- 7. Properties and Edible Applications of Soybean Oil.- I. General Properties of Soybean Oil.- A. Refractive Index.- B. Iodine Value.- C. Smoke, Flash, and Fire Points.- D. Melting Point.- E. Polymorphism.- F. Measuring Crystallization Behavior.- 1. Principles of Measurements.- 2. Solid Fat Index.- 3. NMR Method.- 4. DSC Method.- II. Lipid Oxidation.- A. Mechanisms.- B. Flavor Reversion of Soybean Oil.- C. Measuring Lipid Oxidation.- 1. Analytical Methods.- 2. Accelerated Testing.- 3. Sensory Evaluations.- D. Controlling Lipid Oxidation.- III. Various Types of Soybean Oil.- IV. Edible Applications of Soybean Oil.- A. Salad and Cooking Oils.- B. Shortenings (Baking and Frying Oils).- 1. Plastic Shortenings.- 2. Powdered Shortenings.- 3. Pourable Shortenings.- 4. Frying Shortenings.- C. Margarines.- D. Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing.- E. Emulsifiers.- F. Other Applications.- V. Utilization of Soy Lecithin.- References.- 8. Soybean Protein Products Navam Hettiarachchy and Uruthira Kalapathy.- I. A Brief History of Soy Protein Products.- II. Types of Soy Protein Products and Processing.- A. Defatted Soy Flakes and Meal.- 1. Desolventizing and Toasting Soy Meals for Feed.- 2. Desolventizing and Deodorizing Soy Flakes for Food.- B. Defatted Soy Grits and Flour.- C. Soy Protein Concentrates.- 1. Aqueous Alcohol Extraction.- 2. Acid-Leaching Process.- 3. Moist-Heat-Water-Leaching Process.- D. Soy Protein Isolates.- 1. A Commercial Process.- 2. Separation by Molecular Weight.- 3. Membrane Processing.- 4. Aqueous Extraction.- 5. Salt Extraction.- 6. Separation of Intact Protein Bodies.- E. Toasted Full-Fat Soy Flour.- F. Enzyme Active Full-Fat Soy Flour.- G. Textured Soy Protein Products.- H. Chemical Composition of Soy Protein Products.- III. Nutritional Quality of Soy Protein.- A. Amino Acid Composition.- B. Protein Digestibility.- IV. Soy Protein as a Functional Ingredient.- A. Structure of Proteins.- B. Functional Properties.- 1. Solubility.- 2. Emulsification.- 3. Foaming Properties.- 4. Gelation.- 5. Water-Binding Capacity.- 6. Water-Holding Capacity.- C. Organoleptic Properties.- D. Other Properties.- V. Modification of Soy Proteins.- A. Physical Methods.- B. Chemical Methods.- C. Enzymatic Methods.- VI. Applications of Soy Protein Products.- A. Applications in Traditional Food Products.- 1. Meat Extenders and Analogs.- 2. Bakery Products.- 3. Dairy Products and Dairy Analogs.- 4. Other Products.- B. Edible Films and Coatings.- C. Industrial Uses.- D. Nutraceutical Applications.- VII. Challenges and Future Research.- References.- 9. The Second Generation of Soyfoods.- I. Dairy Analogs.- A. Frozen Soy Desserts.- 1. Soy Ice Cream.- 2. Frozen Soy Yogurt.- B. Lactic Acid Fermented Soy Products.- 1. Lactic Fermentation on Soyinilk.- 2. Soy Yogurt.- 3. Soy Cheese.- C. Engineered Soy Cheese.- II. Meat Analogs.- A. The Markets.- B. Varieties.- C. Nutritional Consideration.- D. Taste.- E. Choice of Soy Protein Ingredients.- F. Prospects.- III. Protein Texturization.- A. Fiber Spinning.- B. Thermoplastic Extrusion.- C. Direct Steam Texturization.- D. Shaping and Heating.- E. Enzymatic Texturization.- F. Salt Coagulation (Tofu Making).- IV. Tofu-Based Foods and Ingredients.- References.- 10. Soyfoods: Their Role in Disease Prevention and Treatment.- I. Diet, Health, and Soyfoods.- II. Macronutrients in Soybeans.- A. Protein.- B. Fat.- III. Soy Isoflavones.- A. Isomer Structure and Occurrences.- B. Absorption and Metabolism.- C. Estrogenic/Antiestrogenic Activity.- IV. Soy Intake and Cancer Risk.- A. Genistein as an Anticarcinogen.- B. Breast Cancer.- C. Prostate Cancer.- D. Cancer Treatment.- V. Soy Intake and Osteoporosis.- A. Protein, Soy Protein, and Bone Health.- B. Isoflavones and Bone Health.- VI. Soy Intake and Kidney Disease.- VII. Soy Intake and Heart Disease.- A. Serum Cholesterol-Lowering Effect.- B. Role of Isoflavones.- VIII. Soy Intake and Menopause.- IX. Potential Concerns Related to Soy Consumption.- A. Oligosaccharides.- B. Phytate.- C. Saponins.- D. Trypsin Inhibitors.- E. Isoflavones.- X. Summary.- References.- 11. Soybean Improvements through Plant Breeding and Genetic Engineering.- I. The Breeding Process.- A. Strategic Planning.- B. Germplasm Evaluation.- C. Genetic Studies.- D. Variety Development and Release.- II. Breeding Methods.- A. Recurrent Selection.- B. Crossing.- C. Mutation Breeding (Mutagenesis).- D. Molecular Markers.- E. Biotechnological Approach.- 1. Techniques.- 2. Advantages and Disadvantages.- 3. Prospects.- III. Breeding to Increase Crop Productivity.- A. Herbicide-Tolerant Crops.- B. Insect-Resistant Crops.- IV. Breeding for Food-Grade Soybeans.- V. Breeding to Increase Protein and Oil Content.- A. Soybeans with High Protein Content.- B. Soybeans with High Oil Content.- C. Soybeans with Both High Protein and High Oil.- VI. Breeding to Improve Oil Quality.- A. The Need for Oil Quality Enhancement.- B. Challenges to Resolve Conflicts within a Quality Triangle of Edible Oils.- C. Current Trends in Oilseed Breeding.- D. Progress in Altering Soybean Oil Composition.- 1. Low Linolenic Soybeans.- 2. High Oleic Soybeans.- 3. Low Palmitic Soybeans.- 4. High Saturate Soybeans.- VII. Breeding to Improve Protein Quality.- A. Changing 11S/7S Ratio.- B. Increasing Essential Amino Acids.- C. Eliminating Trypsin Inhibitors.- D. Reducing Oligosaccharides.- E. Reducing Phytates.- F. Increasing Isoflavones.- VIII. Breeding to Control Beany Flavor.- References.