Understanding Natural Flavors

1 Predicting acceptability from flavour data.- Abstract.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.1.1 Procedure considerations.- 1.1.2 Design considerations.- 1.1.3 Analysis considerations.- 1.1.4 Practical considerations.- 1.2 Examples of the multiple regression approach.- 1.2.1 Predicting hedonic values of raw carrot texture from sensory descriptive attributes.- 1.2.2 Predicting hedonic values of cooked rice from sensory descriptive attributes.- 1.2.3 Predicting strawberry jam preference from sensory and analytical variables.- 1.3 Conclusion.- References.- 2 Sensory analysis of flavours.- Abstract.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.1.1 Definition.- 2.1.2 Quality: two sources of variables.- 2.2 The sensory instruments.- 2.3 Psychology.- 2.4 Psychophysics.- 2.5 Physiology: oral, nasal, retronasal and trigeminal perception.- 2.6 Sensory analysis.- 2.6.1 The possibilities.- 2.6.2 The tool box.- 2.6.3 Quality of judgement.- 2.6.4 Scales.- 2.6.5 Methods.- 2.6.6 Sensory technique.- References.- 3 Food acceptability.- Abstract.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Tools for measuring and understanding product acceptance and perception.- 3.3 Measuring acceptance.- 3.3.1 Environment and context.- 3.3.2 Products being considered.- 3.3.3 Product associations.- 3.3.4 Availability and familiarity.- 3.3.5 Variety.- 3.3.6 Interviewer influence.- 3.4 Methods for exploring underlying causes of acceptance.- 3.4.1 Regression modelling.- 3.4.2 Trade-off modelling and conjoint analysis.- 3.4.3 Behavioural modelling.- 3.4.4 Information-processing-network approaches.- 3.5 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Psychology and psychophysiological measurements of flavour.- Abstract.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The physiological study of eating behaviours.- 4.3 Psychophysiological techniques.- 4.4 R. W. Moncrieff.- 4.5 Averaged evoked potentials.- 4.6 Psychophysiology, EEG and brain electrical activity mapping.- 4.7 Neuropsychology and the cerebral cortex.- 4.8 The Warwick olfaction research methodology.- 4.8.1 The quantification of BEAM maps.- 4.9 A BEAM investigation using infants and a longitudinal adult study.- 4.10 Event-related potentials and food odours.- 4.11 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Matching sensory and instrumental analyses.- Abstract.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Goals.- 5.2.1 Understanding causal relationships.- 5.2.2 Finding calibration and prediction models.- 5.2.3 Application in quality assurance and management.- 5.3 Methods.- 5.3.1 Sensory methods.- 5.3.2 Instrumental methods.- 5.3.3 Computers and data analytical methods.- 5.4 Philosophy.- 5.4.1 To what extent can flavour be measured?.- 5.4.2 Philosophical concepts of relevance in flavour assessment.- 5.5 Qualimetrics.- 5.5.1 Why qualimetrics?.- 5.5.2 Definitions.- 5.5.3 Multivariate psychophysics.- 5.5.4 Multivariate data analysis.- 5.5.5 Multivariate calibration and prediction.- 5.6 Examples.- 5.6.1 Goals.- 5.6.2 Materials and methods.- 5.6.3 Results: rapid, relevant and reliable methods (goal 1).- 5.6.4 Results: use of prior knowledge (goal 2).- 5.6.5 Discussion.- 5.7 Conclusions.- Acknowledgement.- References.- 6 Product optimization.- Abstract.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.1.1 Optimization procedure.- 6.1.2 Definition of the desired response.- 6.2 Applications of response surface optimization.- 6.2.1 Thiamine and SO2 content in quality white wine production.- 6.2.2 Optimization of wine fermentation by using immobilized yeast cells.- 6.2.3 Optimization of Provolone cheese quality (preference) by sensory descriptive analysis.- 6.3 Conclusion.- References.- 7 Software for data collection and processing.- Abstract.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Software for data collection.- 7.3 Software for data analysis (traditional statistical analysis).- 7.4 Software for data exploration.- 7.5 The future.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 8 Citrus breeding and flavour.- Abstract.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Botanical considerations.- 8.2.1 Taxonomic systems.- 8.2.2 Breeding problems.- 8.3 Breeding of citrus flavours.- 8.3.1 Sensory analysis.- 8.3.2 Nonvolatile flavours.- 8.3.3 Volatile flavours.- 8.3.4 Conventional breeding programmes.- 8.3.5 New breeding approaches.- 8.4 Conclusion.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 9 Cereal flavours.- Abstract.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Principal flavour-formation routes in cereals and cereal products.- 9.3 Bio off-flavour.- References.- 10 Meat flavour.- Abstract.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Precursors of meat flavour.- 10.3 Lipid-derived volatiles in meat.- 10.3.1 Lipid autoxidation.- 10.3.2 Contribution of lipid-derived volatiles to meat aroma.- 10.3.3 Species-characteristic aromas.- 10.4 Volatiles from water-soluble precursors.- 10.4.1 Maillard reaction.- 10.4.2 Strecker degradation.- 10.4.3 Contribution of furfurals and furanones to aroma.- 10.4.4 Nitrogen compounds in meat aroma.- 10.4.5 Sulphur compounds in meat aroma.- References.- 11 Consumer perceptions of natural foods.- Abstract.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Factors influencing perception of food.- 11.3 Consumer perceptions and attitudes.- 11.3.1 Discussion.- 11.3.2 The safety of natural foods.- 11.4 Short-term future.- 11.5 Long-term future.- 11.5.1 Technology.- 11.5.2 Government.- 11.5.3 Corporate business.- 11.5.4 Does natural food imply safe food?.- 11.6 Conclusion.- References.- 12 Biotechnical production of flavours — current status.- Abstract.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 What are bioflavours?.- 12.3 Plant cells as biocatalysts.- 12.4 Exogenous substrates and cell vitality.- 12.5 Artificial sites for the accumulation of product.- 12.6 Nutritional improvement.- 12.7 Metabolism of monoterpenes.- 12.8 Photomixotrophy.- 12.9 Conclusion.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 13 Natural flavours for alcoholic beverages.- Abstract.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Aromatized wines.- 13.3 Anise-flavoured spirits.- 13.4 Fruit liqueurs.- 13.5 Control of the naturalness of flavours.- 13.6 Conclusion.- References.- 14 Beer flavour.- Abstract.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Hop flavour.- 14.2.1 Wort boiling.- 14.2.2 Fermentation.- 14.2.3 Maturation.- 14.3 Flavour stability.- 14.4 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 15 Wine flavour.- Abstract.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Terpenes.- 15.3 2-Methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine.- 15.4 Influence of geographical factors.- 15.5 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 16 Flavour of distilled beverages.- Abstract.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Factors influencing the quality of grape brandies.- 16.2.1 Introduction.- 16.2.2 Grape variety.- 16.2.3 Ripeness of the grapes.- 16.2.4 Sanitary state of the grapes.- 16.2.5 Method of harvesting.- 16.2.6 Fermentation.- 16.2.7 Influence of yeast contact and storage time on volatile components in wine.- 16.2.8 Influence of quantity of yeast during distillation on the composition volatiles in wine distillates.- 16.2.9 Influence of the method of distillation.- 16.2.10 Conclusions.- 16.3 Factors influencing the quality of Scotch whisky.- 16.3.1 Introduction.- 16.3.2 Peated malt.- 16.3.3 Mashing, fermentation and distillation.- 16.3.4 Ethyl carbonate.- 16.3.5 Conclusions.- 16.4 Maturation.- 16.4.1 Introduction.- 16.4.2 Oak lactones.- 16.4.3 Aromatic aldehydes.- 16.4.4 Wood extracts.- 16.4.5 Conclusions.- 16.5 Characterization of distilled beverages using instrumental analysis.- References.- 17 Cocoa flavour.- Abstract.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 Components of cocoa flavour.- 17.3 Cocoa cultivation and processing.- 17.3.1 Harvesting.- 17.3.2 Fermentation.- 17.3.3 Drying.- 17.3.4 Roasting.- 17.3.5 Cocoa lipids.- 17.4 Conclusion.- References.- 18 Cheese flavour.- Abstract.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 Cheese-making.- 18.3 Lactic acid fermentation.- 18.3.1 Starter cultures.- 18.3.2 Effect on maturation.- 18.4 Lipids.- 18.4.1 Role of lipids.- 18.4.2 Formation of aroma and flavour compounds.- 18.5 Proteins.- 18.5.1 Proteolytic enzymes.- 18.5.2 Flavour peptides.- 18.5.3 Peptides in cheese flavour.- 18.5.4 Formation of volatiles.- 18.6 Conclusion.- References.- 19 Savoury flavours — an overview.- Abstract.- 19.1 Introduction.- 19.1.1 Odour.- 19.1.2 Taste.- 19.1.3 Trigeminal sensations.- 19.1.4 Complexity.- 19.2 Savoury foods.- 19.3 Sources of savoury flavour.- 19.3.1 Sodium chloride.- 19.3.2 Umami.- 19.3.3 Protein hydrolysates.- 19.3.4 Maillard reactions.- 19.3.5 Fat reactions.- 19.4 Release of flavour.- 19.5 Conclusions.- References.