Perspectives in Ethology

1 Natural Responses to Scheduled Rewards.- I. Abstract.- II. The Quest for Reinforcement.- III. The Ant in a Maze.- IV. Reward Is Circular.- V. Reward Is Relative.- VI. Reward Is Reversible.- VII. Reward Is Displaceable.- VIII. Arbitrary Operants or Directed Respondents.- IX. The Coping Organism and the Artificial Niche.- X. Needs, Receptors, and Neural Circuits.- XI. Summing Up: The Organism—Information Approach.- XII. References.- 2 Imitation: A Review and Critique.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. History.- A. Early Comparative Psychology.- B. S-R/Reinforcement Learning Theory.- C. Classical Ethology.- IV. Current Status.- A. Bird Vocalization.- B. Social Facilitation.- C. Observational Learning.- V. Conclusions.- VI. Acknowledgments.- VII. References.- 3 Behavioral Aspects of Predation.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Experimental Component Analysis.- A. Analysis of the Functional Response.- B. Conclusions.- IV. Searching Images.- A. Evidence for Searching-Image Formation.- B. Switching and Searching-Image Formation.- C. Polymorphism and Searching Images.- D. Conclusions.- V. Hunting by Expectation.- A. Field Evidence.- B. Discussion.- VI. Search Paths.- A. Random Searching.- B. Area-Restricted Searching.- C. Modification of Searching Strategy Through Learning.- VII. “Niche” Hunting and Profitability.- A. Evidence.- B. Discussion.- VIII. Optimization Models of Predator Behavior.- A. Optimal Prey Selection.- B. Optimal Use of Patches.- IX. General Conclusions and Summary.- X. Acknowledgments.- XI. References.- 4 Orientation of Birds by Geomagnetic Field.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. The Geomagnetic Field.- IV. Magnetic Field Perception.- V. Conclusion.- VI. Acknowledgments.- VII. Appendix I.- VIII. Appendix II.- IX. Appendix III.- X. References.- 5 Describing Sequences of Behavior.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Sequences Within the Individual.- A. Methods of Analysis.- B. Some Comments on the Methods Used.- C. Alternative Methods of Approach.- IV. Sequences of Interaction Between Individuals.- V. Discussion.- VI. Acknowledgments.- VII. References.- 6 Specific and Nonspecific Factors in the Causation of Behavior.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- A. Action-Specific Models.- B. Diffuse Activation Models.- C. Partial Specificity (“Wavicle”) Approach.- III. Models and Operations: Aspects of Classification and Analysis of Behavioral Control Systems.- A. Model Construction: General Themes.- B. Three Basic Dimensions in Integrated Behavior.- C. A Prototype Model and Its Limitations.- D. Summary of Classification Criteria.- E. Alternative Formulations.- F. An Operational Approach.- IV. Integrative Specificity Literature: An Overview.- A. Attentional-Motivational Variables.- B. Intensity Dimensions.- C. General Drive Constructs: Some Specific Dimensions.- D. Summation of Heterogeneous Factors.- E. Central-Peripheral Factors.- F. Approach-Avoidance and Activation Level.- G. Integrative Efficiency and Activation Level.- V. Displacement Activities: A Case Study.- A. Overview.- B. Shared Excitation vs. Disinhibition.- C. Central vs. Peripheral Factors.- D. Summary and Conclusions.- VI. Synopsis and Extrapolation: A “Boundary-State” Approach.- A. Synopsis: Major Specificity/Nonspecificity Dimensions.- B. Extrapolation: “Boundary-State” Model.- C. Related Behavioral Literature.- VII. Résumé.- VIII. Acknowledgments.- IX. References.- 7 Social Displays and the Recognition of Individuals.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Observing Social Behavior.- A. Social Events Often Seem To Be Inconsequential.- B. Conspicuous Actions, and the Interactions That Follow Them, Can Surprise the Observer.- C. Individuals Become More Predictable in Their Characteristic Ways of Behaving in Their Social Groups.- IV. Social Behavior of Individual Animals.- V. Social Structures in Groups of Individuals.- VI. Differentiation of Relationships Between Individuals.- A. Introduction.- B. Participating in Encounters and Games.- C. Meaning, Reacting, and Acting.- D. Being Driven and Striving: Drive Theories of Display.- E. Being Driven and Striving: Goal Theories of Display.- F. Reinforcement Theories of Social Differentiation.- G. Social Differentiation and Imprinting.- VII. Methods Available for Studying Social Differentiation.- A. Introduction.- B. Computer-Linked Event Recording and Computer Aid.- C. Distinguishing Social Actions in the Stream of Behavior.- D. Discovering Action Sequences Within and Between Individuals.- E. Variable Action Sequences and the Characterization of Relationships Between Individuals.- VIII. Conclusions.- IX. Acknowledgments.- X. References.- 8 Does the Holistic Study of Behavior Have a Future?.- I. Introduction.- A. “Dimensional Complexity”.- B. The Advantages of Studying Acoustic Behavior.- II. The Phenomena: The Morning Song of the Swainson’s Thrush.- A. Introduction.- B. The Song Types.- C. The Primary Pattern Types.- D. The Scales.- E. The Ordering of Primary Patterns in a Song.- F. Evidence for an Overall Pattern to the Song.- G. Polyphonic Organization in the Veery.- H. Overall Primary Pattern Sequence.- I. The Keynote Sequence and Modulation Order.- J. The Emergence of “Song Cycles”: Interaction Between Primary Pattern and Key Sequencing.- K. Summary: The Patterning of Song in Hylocichla.- III. The Phenomena: Diagonal or Rhomboidal Patterning in Other Taxa.- A. The Western Meadowlark.- B. Human Music.- C. Plant Phyllotaxy.- D. A Comparison of Thrush, Human, and Plant.- IV. The Interpretation of Orderly Patterning.- A. Complex Determinate Sequences.- B. Simplistic Models of Behavioral Organization.- C. Simple Nonlinear Models and the Emergence of Emergent Properties.- D. Further Consequences of Nonlinearity.- E. Complexity and Research Strategy.- V. On the Hierarchical Organization of Behavior.- A. Different Kinds of Hierarchies.- B. Hierarchies in the Nervous System.- C. Hierarchies and Plans.- D. Hierarchies and Holism.- VI. Perceptual Gating Arrays and the Concept of Distributed Control.- A. The Perceptual Template in Song Development and Production.- B. A Highly Specific Model of the Perceptual Template.- C. The Functioning of Gating Arrays.- D. Self-Tuning: Limit Cycle Behavior.- E. Hierarchical Organization vs. Distributed Control.- VII. ... But Is It Art?.- VIII. References.