Flame-Retardant Polymeric Materials

1Combustion of Polymers and Its Retardation.- 2 Brief Description of the Phases of Polymer Degradation and Combustion.- 2.1 Thermal Degradation of Polymers.- 2.2 Thermal-Oxidative Degradation of Polymers.- 3. Analysis of the Combustion Process and Pertinent Aspects of Flame Retardation.- 3.1 Basic Features of Flame Retardancy.- 3.2 Additional Features of Flame-Retarding Compositions.- 3.3 Polymer Properties Which Affect the Heating and Combustion Processes.- 4. Semiquantitative Evaluation of Polymer Flammability: The Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI).- 2Technology and Test Methods of Flameproofing of Cellulosics.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nondurable Flame Retardants.- 2.1 Group I.- 2.2 Group II.- 2.3 Group III.- 3. Semidurable Flame Retardants.- 3.1. Titanium and Antimony Compounds.- 3.2. Metallic Oxide and Halogenated Organic Binder Compositions.- 4 Flame-Resistant Cotton Flote.- 5 Durable Flame Retardants.- 5.1 Phosphorylation.- 5.2 Sulfation.- 5.3 Combined Sulfation-Phosphorylation.- 5.4 Mesylation and Tosylation.- 5.5 Phosphoric and Phosphorous Acid Derivatives.- 5.6 Phosphonitrilic Halides and Their Derivatives.- 5.7 Phosphines and Phosphine Oxides.- 5.8 Phosphonium Salts.- 5.9 Phosphinic Acid and Its Derivatives.- 5.10 Phosphonic Acid Derivatives.- 5.11 Phosphorus-Containing Triazines.- 6. Halogens as Flame Retardants.- 6.1 Activity of Bromine and Chlorine Compounds.- 6.2 Synergism.- 6.3 Brominated Lignin and Cellulose.- 7. Flame-Retardant Treatment of Wood, Board, and Paper.- 7.1 Flame-Retardant Requirements.- 7.2 Treating Processes.- 7.3 Properties of Flame-Retardant Wood.- 7.4 Recent Developments.- 8. Testing Methods.- 8.1 Textiles.- 8.2 Testing of Paper and Paper Laminates.- 8.3 Wood-Base Materials.- 8.4 Need for Flammability Testing of Environment.- 9. References.- 3 Flame Retardance of Protein Fibers.- 1 The Structure of Protein Fibers.- 2 Flammability of Wool.- 3 Mechanism of Thermal Degradation and Combustion.- 4 Smoke Emission and Toxic Fumes.- 5 Mechanism of Flame Retardancy.- 6 Flame-Retardant Treatments.- 6.1. Nondurable Treatments.- 6.2 Phosphorus-Based Treatments.- 6.3 Metal Compounds.- 6.4 Chemical Modification of Wool.- 6.5 Wool Flame-Resistant Man-Made Fiber Blends.- 7. References.- 4 Flame-Retardant Polyethylene Terephthalate Fibers.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nonreactive Additives.- 2.1 Halogen.- 2.2 Phosphorus.- 2.3 Phosphorus-Halogen Combinations.- 2.4 Special Techniques.- 3 Ethylene Terephthalate Copolymers.- 4 Fiber and Fabric Treatments.- 5 Fabric Flammability.- 6 References.- 5 Flame Retardance of Rubbers.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of Burning of Rubber.- 3 Flammability Testing.- 4 Smoke Generation.- 5 Flame Retardancy of Rubbers.- 6 Commercial Rubbers.- 6.1 Natural Rubber (NR).- 6.2 Synthetic m-Polyisoprene.- 6.3 SBR.- 6.4 Polybutadiene Rubber.- 6.5 Butyl.- 6.6 EPMandEPDM.- 6.7 Nitrile.- 6.8 Neoprene.- 6.9 Thiokol.- 6.10 Chlorohydrin Rubbers (ECO).- 6.11 Silicone Rubbers (MQR).- 6.12 Hypalon Rubber (CSM).- 6.13 Fluorocarbon Rubber (FKM).- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 6 Retardation of Combustion of Polyamides.- 1.Introduction.- 2. Factors Affecting the Combustion and Related Processes of Polyamides.- 2.1 Heating.- 2.2 Transitions.- 2.3 Degradation.- 2.4 Decomposition.- 2.5 Oxidation.- 2.6 Ignition.- 2.7 Combustion.- 2.8 Propagation.- 3. Thermal and Thermal-Oxidative Degradation of Different Polyamides.- 3.1 Nylon6, 6-6, and 6-10.- 3.2 Less Common Polyamides.- 4. Assessment of Physicochemical Changes in Degrading Polyamides.- 4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA).- 4.2 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA).- 4.3 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR).- 4.4 Mass Spectrometry (MS).- 4.5 Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography (P-GC).- 4.6 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR).- 4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR).- 4.8 Other Techniques.- 5. Stabilization Against Combustion.- 5.1 Use of Additive-Type Stabilizers and Flame Retardants.- 5.2 Modification of Existing Polyamides.- 5.3 Synthesis of Structurally Modified Polyamides.- 5.4 Synthesis of High-Temperature Polyamides.- 6. New Trends.- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 7 Relationship Between Chemical Structure and Flammability Resistance of Polyurethanes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Effect of Structure on Flammability of Urethane Foams.- 2 Modified Urethane Foams.- 4 References.- 8 Retardation of Combustion of Phenolic, Urea-Formaldehyde, Epoxy, and Related Resin Systems.- 1 Introduction.- 2. Phenolic Resins.- 2.1. Flame Retardation in Phenolic Resins.- 3. Furan Resins.- 3.1. Flame Retardation in Furan Resins.- 4. Urea-Formaldehyde Resins.- 4.1. Flame-Retardation Applications of Urea-Formaldehyde Resins.- 5. Melamine Resins.- 5.1. Flame-Retardation Applications of Melamine Resins.- 6. Epoxy Resins.- 6.1. Flame Retardation in Epoxy Resins.- 7. Summary.- 8. References.- 9 Candle-Type Test for Flammability of Polymers.- 1. Flammability Measurements.- 2. Critical Oxygen Indexes of Polymers.- 2.1. Effect of Some Variables on the Oxygen Index.- 3. A Candle Model of a Burning Polymer.- 4. Polyethylene Burning and a Possible Limitation of the Candle Model.- 5. Modes of Inhibiting the Flammability of Candle-Burning Polymers.- 6. Inhibition by Antimony.- 7. Inhibition by Chlorine.- 8. Inhibition by Dripping.- 9. Inhibition by Fillers.- 10. References.- 10 Flame-Retardant Organic Coatings.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Architectural Coatings.- 2.1 Nonintumescent Flame-Retardant Coatings.- 2.2 Intumescent Coatings.- 3. Fabric Coatings.- 3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride Fabric Coatings.- 3.2 Polyurethane Fabric Coatings.- 3.3Other Coatings Suitable for Fabrics.- 4. Heat-Resistant Organic Coatings.- 4.1 Polyimide Coatings.- 4.2 Silicone Coatings.- 4.3 Fluoropolymers.- 5. References.