The Year in Endocrinology 1977

1 Hypothalamus.- 1.1. Hormones in Brain.- 1.1.1. “Gastrointestinal Peptides”.- 1.1.1.1. Gastrin.- 1.1.1.2. Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide.- 1.1.1.3. Substance P.- 1.1.2. Neurotensin.- 1.1.3. Renin.- 1.1.4. Pituitarylike Peptides.- 1.1.4.1. ACTH, MSH, Growth Hormone, and Endorphin in Hypophysectomized Animals.- 1.1.4.2. ?-Lipotropin, Endorphin, and Enkephalin.- 1.2. Hormones in Pituitary Blood.- 1.2.1. Demonstration of Releasing Factors and Pituitary Hormones in Portal Blood: Newer Studies on the Pituitary Portal System.- 1.3. Factors Involved in Brain Androgenization.- 1.3.1. Sexual Dimorphism of Brain.- 1.3.2. Hormones Involved in Neonatal Androgenization.- 1.4. Melatonin.- 1.5. Clinical Neuroendocrinology.- 1.5.1. Endocrine Effects of Pituitary-Hypothalamic Irradiation for Nonpituitary or Hypothalamic Tumors.- 1.5.2. Selective Removal of Hypersecreting Pituitary Microadenomas.- 1.5.2.1. Theoretical and Pathological Considerations.- 1.5.2.2. Results of Treatment.- Addendum.- References.- 2 Anterior Pituitary.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Corticotropin-Related Peptides.- 2.2.1. Clinical Abnormalities.- 2.3 Thyrotropin.- 2.3.1. Regulation of Secretion.- 2.3.2. Pituitary Enlargement in Hypothyroidism.- 2.3.3. TSH Responses to TRH Testing.- 2.4. Gonadotropins.- 2.4.1. Heterogeneity and Subunit Characterization.- 2.4.2. Responses to LHRH.- 2.4.3. Disorders of Puberty.- 2.4.4. Gonadotropin-Secreting Tumors.- 2.4.5. Gonadotropins and Hypothalamic Diseases.- 2.5. Prolactin.- 2.5.1. Normal Physiology.- 2.5.2. Pharmacological Modification.- 2.5.3. Hyperprolactinemia Syndromes.- 2.5.4. Lactation.- 2.5.5. Prolactin Secretion in Nonpituitary Disease.- 2.6. Growth Hormone.- 2.6.1. Molecular Activation.- 2.6.2. Receptors.- 2.6.3. Placental Growth-Hormone-Like Peptides.- 2.6.4. Growth Hormone Effects.- 2.6.5. Pharmacological Modifications of Growth Hormone Secretion.- 2.6.6. Hypopituitarism.- 2.6.7. Growth Hormone Treatment.- 2.6.8. Acromegaly.- 2.7. Somatomedins.- References.- 3 The Thyroid.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Interrelationships.- 3.3. Thyroid Hormones.- 3.3.1. Synthesis and Secretion.- 3.3.2. Peripheral Metabolism.- 3.4. Mechanisms of Thyroid Hormone Action.- 3.5. Clinical Thyroidology.- 3.5.1. Hyperthyroidism.- 3.5.2. Hypothyroidism.- 3.5.3. Thyroid Cancer.- 3.5.4. Miscellaneous.- References.- 4 Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin.- 4.1. Parathyroid Hormone.- 4.1.1. Introduction.- 4.1.2. Hormone Synthesis, Secretion, and Turnover.- 4.1.3. Physiological Role of Parathyroid Hormone.- 4.1.3.1. Calcium Homeostasis.- 4.1.3.2. Physiology of Bone.- 4.1.3.3. Parathyroid Hormone and the Skeleton.- 4.1.3.4. Parathyroid Hormone and the Kidney.- 4.1.3.5. An Integrated Model of Calcium Homeostasis.- 4.1.3.6. Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D.- 4.1.3.7. Nature of Active Parathyroid Hormone.- 4.1.3.8. A Wider Role for Parathyroid Hormone.- 4.1.4. Cellular Response to Parathyroid Hormone.- 4.1.5. Regulation of Hormone Synthesis and Secretion.- 4.1.5.1. Why Do Parathyroid Cells React to Calcium?.- 4.1.5.2. Is Hyperparathyroidism a Primary Mitochondrial Disease?.- 4.1.6. Hyperparathyroidism.- 4.1.6.1. Pathology of Classic Hyperparathyroidism.- 4.1.6.2. Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis.- 4.1.6.3. Surgery.- 4.1.6.4. Preoperative Localization of Pathological Glands.- 4.1.6.5. Renal Osteodystrophy.- 4.1.7. Hypoparathyroidism.- 4.1.7.1. Postsurgical Hypoparathyroidism.- 4.1.7.2. Hormone-Resistant Hypoparathyroidism.- 4.1.7.3. Treatment.- 4.1.7.4. Pancreatitis.- 4.1.8. Interactions of Parathyroid Hormone with Other Hormones.- 4.1.8.1. Thyroid Hormone.- 4.1.8.2. Growth Hormone and Somatostatin.- 4.1.8.3. Glucocorticoids.- 4.1.9. Hypercalcemia of Malignancy.- 4.2. Calcitonin.- 4.2.1. Introduction.- 4.2.2. Hormone Synthesis and Secretion.- 4.2.3. Physiological Role of Calcitonin in Mammals.- 4.2.4. Mechanism of Hormone Action.- 4.2.5. Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia.- 4.2.6. Calcitonin and Renal Failure.- 4.2.7. Paget’s Disease.- 4.2.8. Calcitonin as a Tumor Marker.- References.- 5 The Adrenal Cortex.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. ACTH: Structure and Function.- 5.2.1. “Big” ACTH and Related Peptides.- 5.2.2. ACTH1–39: Structure and Function.- 5.2.3. Ectopic ACTH.- 5.3. Cyclic Nucleotides in the Adrenal.- 5.3.1. Adenylate Cyclase.- 5.3.2. cAMP-Dependent Protein Kinase.- 5.4. Adrenal Metabolism.- 5.4.1. Steroidogenesis.- 5.4.2. Cholesterol Metabolism.- 5.4.3. Prostaglandins.- 5.5. Regulation of Normal Adrenal Growth.- 5.5.1. ACTH Regulation.- 5.5.2. Neural Regulation.- 5.6. Abnormal Adrenal Function.- 5.6.1. Tests of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis.- 5.6.2. Pituitary-Dependent Cushing’s Syndrome (Cushing’s Disease).- 5.6.3. Nelson’s Syndrome.- References.- 6 Aldosterone and the Renin-Angiotensin System.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. The Renin-Angiotensin System.- 6.2.1. Angiotensin and Blood Pressure.- 6.2.1.1. Diagnostic Use of the Angiotensin II Inhibitor Saralasin.- 6.2.2. Hyporeninemic Hypoaldosteronism and “Abnormal” Renin.- 6.2.3. Bartter’s Syndrome.- 6.3. Aldosterone and the Mineralocorticoid Hormones.- 6.3.1. Biosynthesis.- 6.3.2. Measurement of Plasma Deoxycorticosterone, 18-Hydroxydeoxycorticosterone, and 18-Hydroxycorticosterone Concentrations in Man.- 6.3.3. Low-Aldosterone Hypertension and Adrenal Hypertensive Steroids Other Than Aldosterone.- 6.3.4. Aldosterone Binding.- 6.3.5. Angiotensin III and Aldosterone Production.- References.- 7 Vasopressin and Water Metabolism.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Physiology.- 7.2.1. Osmoregulation.- 7.2.2. Baroregulation.- 7.2.3. Hormonoregulation.- 7.2.4. Interaction of Osmotic and Hemodynamic Stimuli.- 7.2.5. Nociceptive Influences.- 7.2.6. Other Stimuli.- 7.2.7. Neurophysin.- 7.3. Pathology.- 7.3.1. Diabetes Insipidus.- 7.3.2. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis.- References.- 8 The Ovary.- 8.1. Secondary Amenorrhea.- 8.2. Hyperprolactinemic Amenorrhea.- 8.2.1. Etiology.- 8.2.2. Postpartum Amenorrhea.- 8.2.3. Treatment.- 8.2.4. Androgens.- 8.3. Post-Pill Amenorrhea.- 8.4. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.- 8.4.1. Characterization.- 8.4.2. Wedge Resection.- 8.4.3. Ovarian Enzymes.- 8.5. Menstrual Cycle Progesterone.- 8.6. Estrogens and the Adrenal.- 8.7. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin.- 8.7.1. Structural Properties.- 8.7.2. Sialic Acid.- 8.7.3. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin in Pregnancy.- 8.7.4. Trophoblastic Neoplasms.- 8.7.5. Other Cancers.- 8.7.6. Universality of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Production.- 8.7.7. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin and Fertility Control.- References.- 9 The Testis.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Intrauterine and Neonatal Function.- 9.2.1. Embryonic Sex Differentiation.- 9.2.1.1. Normal Controls.- 9.2.1.2. Defects in Testicular Function in Utero.- 9.2.2. Testicular Function in Childhood.- 9.3. Puberty.- 9.4. Adult Physiology.- 9.4.1. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary.- 9.4.2. The Testis.- 9.4.2.1. Steroidogenesis.- 9.4.2.2. Spermatogenesis.- 9.4.2.3. Effect of Age on Testicular Function.- 9.5. Adult Pathophysiology.- 9.5.1. Gonadotropin Deficiencies.- 9.5.2. The Testis.- 9.5.2.1. Steroidogenesis.- 9.5.2.2. Tubular Defects.- 9.6. Influence of Other Diseases on Testicular Function.- 9.7. The H-Y Antigen.- References.- 10 The Sympathoadrenal System.- 10.1. Introduction: Regulation of the Sympathoadrenal System.- 10.2. The Sympathoadrenal System and the Integration of Endocrine Responses.- 10.2.1. Background.- 10.2.2. Renin.- 10.2.2.1. Effects of Catecholamines on Renin Release.- 10.2.2.2. Physiological Role of Catecholamines in Stimulating Renin Release.- 10.2.3. Insulin and Glucagon.- 10.2.3.1. Effects of Catecholamines on Insulin and Glucagon Secretion.- 10.2.3.2. Physiological Role of Catecholamines in the Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion.- 10.2.4. Other Hormones.- 10.2.4.1. Thyroid Hormones.- 10.2.4.2. Gastrin.- 10.2.4.3. Calcitonin.- 10.2.4.4. Parathyroid Hormone.- 10.2.4.5. Erythropoietin.- 10.2.5. Hypothesis: Role of Catecholamines in the Integration of Endocrine Secretion.- 10.3. Catecholamines and Essential Hypertension.- 10.3.1. Background.- 10.3.2. Activity of the Sympathoadrenal System in Various Forms of Human and Experimental Hypertension.- 10.3.2.1. Animal Models of Hypertension.- 10.3.2.2. Indices of Sympathoadrenal Activity in Patients with Essential Hypertension.- 10.3.2.3. Features of Essential Hypertension Consistent with Increased Sympathetic Activity.- 10.3.3. Response to Treatment.- 10.3.4. Summary: Does the Sympathetic Nervous System Have a Primary Role in the Development of Essential Hypertension?.- 10.4. Update of Previously Reviewed Subjects.- 10.4.1. Catecholamines and Hyperthyroidism.- 10.4.1.1. Propranolol in Preparation for Thyroid Surgery.- 10.4.1.2. Thyroid Hormones and Sensitivity to Catecholamines.- 10.4.2. Pheochromocytoma in MEA Syndromes.- 10.4.3. Plasma Catecholamines.- 10.4.3.1. Upright Posture, Volume Depletion, Isometric Hand Grip, and Cigarette Smoking.- 10.4.3.2. Autonomic Neuropathies.- References.- 11 Autoimmunity in Endocrine Disease.- 11.1. Introduction.- 11.2. Basic Considerations.- 11.3. Autoimmunity and the Thyroid.- 11.3.1. Humoral Immunity in Thyroid Disease.- 11.3.2. Cell-Mediated Immunity in Thyroid Disease.- 11.3.3. Genetics of Graves’ Disease and Hashimoto’s Disease.- 11.3.4. Possible Role of Stress in the Induction of Hyperthyroidism.- 11.3.5. Remissions in Graves’ Disease.- 11.3.6. Nature of the Ophthalmopathy.- 11.4. Autoimmunity and the Pancreas.- 11.5. Autoimmunity and the Adrenal.- 11.6. Autoimmunity and the Gonad.- 11.6.1. Autoimmune Oophoritis.- 11.6.2. Autoimmune Orchitis.- 11.6.3. Infertility.- 11.7. Autoimmunity and the Parathyroids.- 11.8. Autoimmunity and the Pituitary.- 11.9. Conclusions.- References.