Lithography

<p>Foreword xi<br /> J&ouml;rge DE SOUSA NORONHA</p>
<p>Introduction xvii<br /> Michel BRILLOU&Euml;T</p>
<p>Chapter 1. Photolithography 1<br /> Philippe BANDELIER, Anne–Laure CHARLEY and Alexandre LAGRANGE</p>
<p>1.1. Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.2. Principles and technology of scanners 3</p>
<p>1.3. Lithography processes 8</p>
<p>1.4. Immersion photolithography 12</p>
<p>1.5. Image formation 25</p>
<p>1.6. Lithography performances enhancement techniques 27</p>
<p>1.7. Contrast 31</p>
<p>1.8. Bibliography 38</p>
<p>Chapter 2. Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography 41<br /> Maxime BESACIER, Christophe CONSTANCIAS and Jean–Yves ROBIC</p>
<p>2.1. Introduction to extreme ultraviolet lithography 41</p>
<p>2.2. The electromagnetic properties of materials and the complex index 46</p>
<p>2.3. Reflective optical elements for EUV lithography 61</p>
<p>2.4. Reflective masks for EUV lithography 72</p>
<p>2.5. Modeling and simulation for EUV lithography 79</p>
<p>2.6. EUV lithography sources 90</p>
<p>2.7. Conclusion 95</p>
<p>2.8. Appendix: Kramers Kr&ouml;nig relationship 96</p>
<p>2.9. Bibliography 97</p>
<p>Chapter 3. Electron Beam Lithography 101<br /> Christophe CONSTANCIAS, Stefan LANDIS, Serdar MANAKLI, Luc MARTIN, Laurent PAIN and David RIO</p>
<p>3.1. Introduction 101</p>
<p>3.2. Different equipment, its operation and limits: current and future solutions 106</p>
<p>3.3. Maskless photolithography 109</p>
<p>3.4. Alignment 118</p>
<p>3.5. Electron–sensitive resists 120</p>
<p>3.6. Electron matter interaction 121</p>
<p>3.7. Physical effect of electronic bombardment in the target 123</p>
<p>3.8. Physical limitations of e–beam lithography 125</p>
<p>3.9. Electrons energy loss mechanisms 136</p>
<p>3.10. Database preparation 146</p>
<p>3.11. E–beam lithography equipment 156</p>
<p>3.12. E–beam resist process 168</p>
<p>3.13. Bibliography 179</p>
<p>Chapter 4. Focused Ion Beam Direct–Writing 183<br /> Jacques GIERAK</p>
<p>4.1. Introduction 183</p>
<p>4.2. Main fields of application of focused ion beams 185</p>
<p>4.3. From microfabrication to nanoetching 193</p>
<p>4.4. The applications 216</p>
<p>4.5. Conclusion 225</p>
<p>4.6. Acknowledgements 226</p>
<p>4.7. Bibliography 226</p>
<p>Chapter 5. Charged Particle Optics 233<br /> Peter HAWKES</p>
<p>5.1. The beginnings: optics or ballistics? 233</p>
<p>5.2. The two approaches: Newton and Fermat 234</p>
<p>5.3. Linear approximation: paraxial optics of systems with a straight optic axis, cardinal elements, matrix<br /> representation 237</p>
<p>5.4. Types of defect: geometrical, chromatic and parasitic aberrations 245</p>
<p>5.5. Numerical calculation 253</p>
<p>5.6. Special cases 257</p>
<p>5.7. Appendix 269</p>
<p>5.8. Bibliography 269</p>
<p>Chapter 6. Lithography resists 275<br /> Amandine JOUVE, Michael MAY, Isabelle SERVIN and Julia SIMON</p>
<p>6.1. Lithographic process 275</p>
<p>6.2. Photosensitive resists 286</p>
<p>6.3. Performance criteria 316</p>
<p>6.4. Conclusion 358</p>
<p>6.5. Bibliography 359</p>
<p>List of Authors 369</p>
<p>Index 373</p>