The Pathways of Mind

I The time measurement of stimulus-response pathways.- Measurement of reaction times in healthy subjects.- Bihemispheric visual reaction tasks.- Summary.- Methods.- Subjects.- Tasks.- Apparatus.- Procedure.- Design.- Data analysis.- Comparison of the computer program with a standard device.- Results.- Illustration of linear relationship between the number of basic elements (stimuli and responses) and the mean reaction time.- Fundamental data.- The time differences between the tasks.- The quotient (v(N+l)(N+l) ? vNN)/slope.- The quotient (v(N+l)(N+l) ? vNN)/dvCT.- Beyond the end of sequential processing (ESP): the begin of parallel processing.- Bihemispheric visual intermediate reaction tasks.- Minimal reaction times (also linear growing with number of alternatives).- Direct observation of the cycle time and comparison with the computed cycle time values.- Discussion.- Discussion of the method.- Comparison of the linear with the logarithmic relation.- Comparison with reaction times given by other authors.- Some theoretical considerations.- Minimal visual reaction time.- Brain imaging of reaction task pathways.- A first mathematical theory of bihemispheric visual reaction tasks.- Fundamentals.- Implicit learning may decrease the number of cycles.- Can the number of cycles be reduced furthermore?.- The bihemispheric visual median finger reaction tasks.- Summary.- Method.- Results.- Each finger yields similar reaction times when tapping at the same key.- Each finger yields different reaction times within the tasks v99 or vlOlO.- The median finger reaction time of a specific finger has its own slope from the task vll to the task vlOlO.- Discussion of the bihemispheric visual median finger reaction times.- The discrepancy between the finger reaction times in the tasks v99 and vll and the reaction time for each single finger in the tasks vllLLF etc.- Is cycle time or cycle number responsible for different finger reaction times?.- Observing or computing the different cycle numbers?.- The line of the median reaction times is the mean of the lines of median finger reaction times.- Monohemispheric visual reaction tasks.- Summary.- Method.- Examples of monohemispheric visual reaction tasks.- Direct observation of visual cycle times.- Direct observation of visual cycle numbers.- Results.- The monohemispheric visual median reaction times.- The monohemispheric visual median finger reaction times.- The directly observed cycle times in monohemispheric visual reaction tasks (v22y).- The directly observed cycle number in monohemispheric visual reaction tasks.- The number of cycles in monohemispheric visual reaction tasks computed by dvCT.- The intercepts of monohemispheric visual reaction tasks.- The number of cycles in monohemispheric visual reaction tasks computed by dvCTy.- Discussion.- The reason of the asymmetry between the two monohemispheric visual pathways v22l and v22r.- Why is the mean cycle number reduced in some fingers (n>4) and in some sides?.- Monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks.- Method.- Collecting the data.- Evaluating the data.- Results.- The monohemispheric auditory median reaction times.- The monohemispheric auditory median finger reaction times.- The directly observed cycle times in monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks (a221 and a22r).- The directly observed cycle numbers in monohemispheric auditory tasks.- The computed number of cycles in monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks.- The intercepts of monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks.- Implicit learning in monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks.- Discussion of monohemispheric auditory reaction tasks.- The hypothetical structure of the task a22y.- Empirical evidence.- Comparison of the directly observed auditory and visual cycle times.- Discussion of auditory and visual cycle times.- Discussion of cycle times of lower areas (sensory or motor).- Discussion of auditory and visual decision times.- Does the right hemisphere decide the visual tasks and the left hemisphere the auditory tasks?.- The monohemispheric cycle times are nearly independent from the target key.- The intra-individual variability of reaction time.- Method.- Results.- Reduction of directly observed cycle numbers in subjects.- Discussion.- Preliminary remark.- Reduction of cycle numbers in various tasks after full implicit learning.- Measurement of reaction times in patients.- The reaction times of patients with monohemispheric brain lesions.- The reaction times of patients with schizophrenia.- Methodical adaptions.- Graphical presentation of different influences on reaction time.- The event-related potentials of reaction tasks.- The ERP of auditory reaction tasks.- The subtraction potentials.- The neural correlates of positive and negative evoked potentials.- The knowledge from PET and fMNR about the neural correlates of auditory reaction tasks.- The correlation between the latencies of the single potentials and the structure of the task all.- II The spatiotemporal structure of stimulus-response pathways.- Measurement of elementary time.- The procedure “NESTLE” in a computer program called “FPM31e”.- The NESTLE procedure applied to a 5 millisecond time scale of reaction times (program FPM31e, procedure NESTLE).- The NESTLE procedure applied to a 1 millesecond scale of reaction times (program FPM26f58).- Application of the NESTLE procedure of FPM to all tasks of a subject.- Convergence of the results of FPM31e, FPM26f58, and chronophoresis.- Problems.- The confrontation of FPM with artificial data.- The Chronophoresis of xlly, x22y, and x33y.- The NESTLE procedure applied to a set of reaction times (program SINGLE).- The chronophoresis of xlly gives better results than that of x22y or x33y.- Difficulties in distinguishing between certain elementary times.- The difference between SINGLE104r and SINGLE106n.- Artificial data.- Attributes of elementary times.- The intra-individual stability of elementary times.- The symmetry of elementary times.- Measurement of pathway structure.- The linear and cyclical part of the pathway (FPM31e).- The elementary times ET(aNNr), ET(aNNl), ET(vNNr), ET(vNNl).- The input time and the output time are summed up to the constant time (CON).- The first peak, FP, of a reaction time distribution is an indicator for the minimal pathway.- (Fp-2ET) divides the linear from the cyclical part in minimal stimulus-response pathways.- The median reaction time MEDIAN.- linEN=(Fp-con)/ET-2 is the number of elementary times in the linear part of the minimal pathway.- cycEN=(Median-Fp)/ET-2 is the number of elementary times between the linear part of the minimal pathway and the median length of the pathway.- Example of the NESTLE results and the reaction times distribution of one task.- Pathway information from the lms-distribution (FPM26f58).- Simulation of a reaction time distribution using the program SIMxl ly.- Hypothetical neural representation.- The cortical structure of the sensory portion of the visual pathway.- Hypothetical division of the stimulus-response pathway into a linear and a cyclical part.- The structure (equation) of mental pathways.- Minimal pathway.- Median pathway.- The variability of the linear part of the pathway.- The variability of the linear pathway within one task (with 100 trials).- The variability of the linear pathway in a rapid succession of tasks.- Subject H23E.- The variability of the linear pathway due to experimental distractions.- Empirical investigations how certain distractions influence the task vllrH23.- Hypothetical interactions between two tasks.- The delay of the task vllr caused by the nFT task of the left hand correlates with the number of tapping fingers.- The variability of the linear pathway in repetitions of tasks after days to months.- The variability of the linear pathway in single trials of event-related potentials (ERP).- The neural representation of variations of the linear pathway.- Examples of linear pathways of the task xlly.- The cortical structure of the sensory part of the visual pathway.- The cortical structure of the sensory portion of the auditory stimulus-response pathway.- The length of the linear portion and the attentional state.- Why should the linear pathway be constant in a task with 100 trials?.- Do the lengths of the linear pathways in one series of a subject change homogeneously (with the same difference) compared to a subsequent series?.- The variability of the cyclical part of the pathway.- Requirements.- The minimal cyclical pathway.- The median cyclical pathway depends on the mode and the number of searching sets.- The difference between the internal mean, the external mean, and the external observable median number of searching cycles.- The mathematical structure of mental pathways.- The irreversibility of the searching mode (the implicit learning axiom).- The reversibility of the number of searches in xlly and x22y.- Examples of pathways.- The subject 013A.- The evaluation of vl lrHOlC.- The evaluation of vllyHOlA.- Discussion.- Critical considerations.- General principles for evaluating the data.- Does the model explain the observed differences between the mean reaction times (x22y - xlly) and (x33y - x22y)?.- Unexplained observations.- Gesine’s effect.- Multiple results in chronophoresis and NESTLE procedure.- Methodical shortcomings.- Collateral conditions.- Ambiguity of data evaluation: elementary times.- Multiple plots.- Alternative linear pathways.- The tasks xNNy use artificial task sets.- The neural representation of elements and memory sets.- Insufficiency of the used hardware and software.- The possibility of other theoretical explanations for the measured data.- III Applications of stimulus-response pathways in neurology and psychiatry.- The pathways of healthy subjects.- Convergence tables.- Winning the equations of HOI step by step.- The chronophoretic result ET=15 fits best into the distribution of alllHOlD.- Applying the ET=15 of alllHOlD to the task alllHOlA.- Applying the structure of alllHOlA = (con + 9 linET + 2 cycCT + 2*2cycCT) to allrHOlA.- Can the elementary times of aETrHOl A = 12 and aETlHOl A=15 contribute to unterstand the structure of a22yH01 A?.- Can the elementary time aETlHOl A=15 and the above structure of a22rH01A be used to unterstand the structure of a22lH01A?.- The measurement of elementary times and the evaluation of the pathway Structure.- Design: 100 trials of the tasks xlly, 200 trials of the tasks x22y, and 300 trials of the tasks x33y.- Survey over the healthy subjects.- Convergence tables.- Collection of Equations.- Design: 100 trials of xlly and 200 trials of x22y.- Symmetries and Statistics.- Frequencies of elementary times.- Frequencies of linear pathways.- Frequencies of cyclical pathways.- The Symmetry of linEN(xNNr) and linEN(xNNl).- The Symmetry of cycEN(xNNr) and cycEN(xNNl).- The Symmetry of linEN(xNNy) and cycEN(xNNy).- The Symmetry of elementary times.- Changes of linEN in repetitions.- Changes of cycEN in repetitions.- Conclusions.- Symmetry between elementary times.- Distribution of linear pathways.- Distribution of cyclical pathways.- Symmetry between linear pathways on either side.- Symmetry between the cyclical pathways on either side.- Symmetry between linEN and cycEN on the same side.- Changes in the length of the linear pathway in repetitions.- The reduction of cycEN in repeated tasks.- The implicit learning axiom.- Double search/triple search.- The pathways of patients with monohemispheric brain lesions.- Convergence tables.- Question.- Methods.- Methods of Measuring.- Methods of Evaluation.- Convergence tables.- The meaning of the first elementary time and the “extra elementary time” in the above convergence tables.- Collection of equations.- Deviations from normal pathways in patients with monohemispheric brain Lesion.- Comparison of the median reaction times homolateral (xNNh) and contralateral (xNNd) to the lesion.- Comparison of the elementary times homolateral (ET(xNNh)) and contralateral (ET(xNNc)) to the lesion.- Comparing the length of the linear and cyclical pathway homolateral (linENh, cycENh) and contralateral (linENc, cycENc) to the lesion.- Conclusions.- Comparison of the median reaction times homolateral (xNNh) and contralateral (xNNd) to the lesion.- Comparison of the elementary times homolateral (ET(xNNh)) and contralateral (ET(xNNd)) to the lesion.- Comparing the length of the linear and cyclical pathway homolateral (linENh, cycENh) and contralateral (linENc, cycENc) to the lesion.- Testing the model by mixed tasks in patients with monohemispheric brain lesion.- One mean value in chronophoresis.- The splitting of elementary times in the chronophoresis of patients with temporo-parietal and parieto-occipitial pattern.- The problem of different elementary times in mixed tasks.- How can the increased elementary time be explained at the molecular level?.- Discussion of the method.- Implicit learning axiom.- The pathways of patients with schizophrenia.- Convergence tables.- Preliminary remarks.- Convergence tables.- Collection of Equations.- Discussion.- Deviations from normal pathways of healthy subjects.- Frequency of elementary times in patients with schizophrenia.- The lengths of linear pathways in patients with schizophrenia.- The lengths of cyclical pathways in patients with schizophrenia.- The symmetry of linear pathways in patients with schizophrenia.- The symmetry of cyclical pathways in patients with schizophrenia.- The symmetry of elementary times in patients with schizophrenia.- The changes of linear pathways in repeated tasks.- Conclusions.- Frequency of elementary times.- Length of the linear pathway.- Length of the cyclical pathway.- Symmetry between the linear pathways.- Symmetry between the cyclical pathways.- Symmetry between the elementary times.- The changes of linear pathways in repeated tasks.- Notes.- History.- Reaction times left of the first peak in patients with prolonged linear pathway.- Critical considerations.- General consideration for all three groups.- The present standard.- Reproducible elementary times are the basis of all.- Special pathways.- Competitive stimulus elements in the instruction phase.- Attention and the length of the linear pathway (linEN).- Common linear pathway principle.- Alternative writing of the equations.- Open questions.- The elementary times and the pathways of healthy subjects.- The pathways of patients with monohemispheric brain lesions.- The pathways of patients with schizophrenia.- The prolongation of the linear pathway (standard and non-standard pathways in patients with schizophrenia).- The replication of results in patients with schizophrenia.- State and trait marker.- The asymmetry of elementary times and the prolongation of the linear pathway in patients with schizophrenia.- Neuroleptics and the prolongation of the linear pathway.- The x33y pathway of patients with schizophrenia.- The most important findings in patients with schizophrenia.- Future research.- IV Critical evaluation of the results and the model.- Confirmation of elementary times and pathway structure by event-related Potentials.- The correspondence between reaction time data (ET, linEN) and eventrelated potentials (latencies) in the a22y pathways of healthy subjects.- Method.- Design.- Hypothesis: FINPFC = IT + (linEN - 1) * ET.- The latency tables of x22y pathways.- The event-related potentials of the xl ly pathways.- Latency tables of ERP(ally).- Discussion.- Statistical correlations between reaction time data (ET, linEN) and ERP data (ET, break).- Correlation between the reaction time data (linEN) and the ERP data (break) of the a22y pathway.- Correlation between the elementary time from the reaction time data and the elementary time from the ERP data of the a22y pathway.- Correlation between the reaction time data and the ERP data of the ally pathway.- The replication of event related potentials.- The side differences of event related potentials during reaction tasks in single subjects.- Some reaction time data of HI 1A and HUB.- Task (alll-alOl)HHC.- Correlations between RT data and ERP data of HI 1..- Task (allr-alOr)HHC.- Correlations between RT data and ERP data of HI 1..- Can these results been replicated in another subject?.- Discussion.- The NESTLE procedure applied to the ERP latencies frequently produces a second result at 20ms (±2ms).- The relation between the break in ERP(a22rSEB) and HnEN(a22rSEA) in 20 healthy subjects.- The correspondence of reaction time data with event-related potentials in patients with schizophrenia.- Latency tables.- Discussion.- Models of the xNNy pathways.- Memory sets and set systems.- The structure of memory sets.- The spontaneous activity of memory sets.- Spontaneous, asynchronous, and slow activity of memory sets.- Consequences of the slow spontaneous asynchronous activity of task sets.- Slow spontaneous asynchronous activity of sensorimotor sets.- Fast stimulated synchronous activity.- Memory sets in the cerebellum.- Set systems.- The order of activation and cancellation of memory sets within a set system.- The Set System of xl ly.- The minimal pathway of xlly.- The set system of x22y.- The minimal pathway of x22y.- The structure of the fastest trials of x22y.- The accidental coincidence of the spontaneously oscillating task set and the target stimulus.- Variations of the minimal pathway of x22y.- Discussion.- Previous models of the xlly pathway.- The previous conception for the xlly pathway proposed the variation of the number of areas.- Conclusive structure of the xl ly pathway.- Models of xNNy pathways.- The Simulation of Set Systems.- The internal structure of simulation programs.- Simulation of xNNyHOl A and xNNyH32A with different strategies.- Comparison of simulation results with reaction time data.- Simulation of tasks xNNyHOl A.- Simulation of task allrH32A.- Simulation of task alllS21A.- The spontaneity of the task set has important consequences for the structure of the pathways.- Testing the evaluation programs (FPM31e, FPM26f58, SINGLE106n, SINGLE104r) with artificial data produced by using an artificial elementary time.- Two artificial elementary times.- One artificial elementary time.- Testing other evaluation programs (SPRING, ERPET) with artificial reaction time data produced by using an artificial elementary time.- Conclusion.- Discussion.- Unsolved problems.- The accuracy of elementary time.- The accuracy of the length of the linear pathway (and the cyclical pathway).- The accuracy of the event-related potentials.- The accuracy of the statistical results.- The findings stimulate new questions.- The neural basis of the elementary time.- Histological questions.- What is the significance of the second break in some latency tables?.- Cued visual reaction tasks.- Inhibition of return.- Delayed response.- Are there motor programs?.- Comparison between the auditory and the visual elementary time in a subject.- Epilogue.- Errors in the present version.- The pathways of mind evade the body-mind problem.- Computers and programs as the adequate tools to investigate the brain.- Discussion of References.- The cortical areas used by stimulus-response pathways in humans (PET, fMRI, rCBF, NIRS).- Delayed cued finger movement task.- Vll.- v22, v21, both visual fields, right hand, (v22-v0), (v21-v0), (v22-v21).- v33.- v44.- v55.- all.- a22.- a33.- a44.- Other cognitive tasks.- The cortical areas used by the stimulus-response pathways in animals (PET, lesion studies, single or multi unit studies).- PET.- Lesion studies.- The timing of ERPs in cortical areas used by stimulus-response pathways in animals.- The cortical areas used by stimulus-response pathways in patients with schizophrenia.- Reaction times of patients with schizophrenia.- rCBF, PET, MRSI.- Evoked potentials.- Dopamine receptors, GABAergic neurons in schizophrenia.- Hemispheric asymmetries in healthy subjects.- Reaction times of patients with depression.- Dopamine and reaction times.- Dopamine and prefrontal cortex.- Other substances and reaction times.- Dehaene et al. (1999).