Vertical Food Web Interactions

A Plant-Insect Relationships: Life-History and Evolution of Tephritid Flies.- 1 The Sympatric Origin of Phytophagous Insects.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 The Debate over Allopatric and Nonallopatric Speciation.- 1.2.1 Contrasting Views on the Importance of Geographic Isolation.- 1.2.2 Gene Flow and Sympatric Speciation.- 1.3 The Plausibility of Sympatric Speciation.- 1.3.1 Allopatric or Sympatric Speciation in the Beetle Genus Ophraella?.- 1.3.2 Allopatric or Sympatric Speciation in the Tephritid Fruit Fly Genus Rhagoletis?.- 1.3.2.1 Biology and Distribution.- 1.3.2.2 Sympatric Host Race Formation.- 1.3.2.3 Sympatric Speciation: a Molecular Perspective.- 1.3.2.4 No History of Geographic Isolation Between Sister Species.- 1.4 Peripatric Speciation Unsupported by Convincing Evidence.- 1.5 Sympatric Speciation and Negative Trade-Offs.- 1.6 Phytophagous Species and Host Races: Is There a Difference?.- 1.6.1 Species as Genotypic Clusters.- 1.6.2 Genotypic Clusters, Allopatric Populations, and the “Test of Sympatry”.- 1.6.3 What is a Host Race?.- 1.6.4 When Does a Host Race Become a Species?.- 1.7 Conclusions.- References.- 2 Host Race Formation in Tephritis conura: Determinants from Three Trophic Levels.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Resource Utilization in Different Host Plants.- 2.3 Mortality Risks.- 2.3.1 Bud Abortion.- 2.3.2 Intraspecific Competition.- 2.3.3 Parasitization Risks in Different Host Plants.- 2.4 Differentiation Among T. conura Populations.- 2.4.1 Fly and Host-Plant Phenology.- 2.4.2 Mating Preferences.- 2.4.3 Larval Development in Different Host Plants.- 2.4.4 Morphological Adaptations in Different Populations.- 2.5 Morphological and Genetic Differentiation Between Populations.- 2.6 Conclusions.- References.- 3 Symphagy Among Florivorous Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Southern California.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Flora Analyzed.- 3.3 Tephritid Sampling and Rearing Procedures.- 3.4 Incidence of Florivorous Tephritidae Among Sampled Asteraceae.- 3.5 Tribal Affinities of Symphagous, Florivorous Tephritidae.- 3.6 Incidence and Coincidence of Genera of Symphagous Tephritidae Within Plant Tribes.- 3.7 Different Levels of Symphagy Among Southern California Tephritidae.- 3.8 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Establishment of Urophora cardui (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Canada Thistle, Cirsium arvense (Asteraceae), and Colony Development in Relation to Habitat and Parasitoids in Canada.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Life Cycle of Urophora cardui.- 4.3 Release Activities and Experimental Studies in Canada.- 4.3.1 Release Stock.- 4.3.2 Releases and Population Development in Saskatchewan.- 4.3.3 Habitat and Mortality in Saskatchewan.- 4.3.4 Recent Releases in British Columbia.- 4.3.5 Parasitism in Eastern Canada.- 4.4 Results.- 4.4.1 Release Stock.- 4.4.2 Releases and Population Development in Saskatchewan.- 4.4.3 Habitat and Mortality in Saskatchewan.- 4.4.4 Recent Releases in British Columbia.- 4.4.5 Parasitism in Eastern Canada.- 4.5 Discussion.- 4.5.1 Release Stock.- 4.5.2 Releases, Population Development and Habitat.- 4.5.3 Parasitism in Eastern Canada.- 4.6 Conclusions.- References.- B Host-Parasite Interactions.- 5 Host Relationships at Reversed Generation Times: Margaritifera (Bivalvia) and Salmonids.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 The Three Margaritifera Species Sensu Stricto.- 5.3 Characteristics of the Host-Parasite Relationship.- 5.3.1 The Parasitic Stage.- 5.3.2 Host Range and Host Specificity.- 5.3.3 Relation Between the Generation Time of Parasite and Host.- 5.4 The Framework for the Evolution of the Host-Parasite Relationship.- 5.4.1 Condition 1: Mode of Host Infection and Parasitic Association.- 5.4.2 Condition 2: Mutual Impact.- 5.4.3 Condition 3: Phylogenetic History.- 5.4.4 Condition 4: Rates of Evolution.- 5.5 Evolutionary Mechanisms.- 5.5.1 Selective Pressure for a Host Range as Broad as Possible.- 5.5.2 Selective Pressure for a High Degree of Adaptation.- 5.6 Evolutionary Outcome.- References.- 6 The Community Structure of Ticks on Kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Methods and Materials.- 6.3 Results.- 6.4 Discussion.- References.- 7 The Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases in Daphnia.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Parasites in Zooplankton Populations.- 7.2 The Abundance of Daphnia Microparasites in Natural Populations.- 7.3 The Biology of Transmission in Aquatic Systems.- 7.3.1 Waterborne Transmission.- 7.3.2 Survival of Transmission Stages Outside the Host.- 7.4 The Spread of Microparasites.- 7.4.1 Parasite Transmission Is Density Dependent.- 7.4.2 Parasite Transmission Can Be Limited by Low Temperatures.- 7.4.3 Host Stress Might Facilitate Parasite Spread.- 7.5 Epidemiology of Daphnia Microparasites.- 7.5.1 A Mechanism for Invasion, Spread and Decline of Parasites in Cladocerans.- 7.5.2 A Mathematical Model for the Epidemiology of Plankton Parasites.- 7.5.3 Analysis of the Model.- 7.6 Discussion.- References.- C Aspects of Chemical Ecology in Different Food Chains.- 8 Inter- and Intraspecific Transfer of Toxic Insect Compound Cantharidin.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Toxic Cantharidin: Biological Activity, Mode of Action, Occurrence and Ecological Significance.- 8.3 Attractivity and Significance of Natural and Synthetic Cantharidin to Canthariphilous Insects.- 8.4 Transfer of Cantharidin Through Developmental Stages and Between Individuals in Canthariphilous Species.- 8.5 Interspecific Transfer of Cantharidin.- 8.5.1 From Producers and Canthariphiles to Cantharidin-Tolerant and Nontolerant Predators.- 8.5.2 From Producers to Canthariphiles and Within Canthariphiles.- 8.6 Evolution of Canthariphily.- 8.6.1 Cantharidin May Increase Individual Fitness.- 8.6.2 Detoxication of Cantharidin in Producers, Canthariphilous Insects and Cantharidin-Tolerant Animals.- 8.6.3 Evolution of Attractancy of Toxic Cantharidin in Canthariphilous Insects.- 8.6.4 Evolution of Cantharidin Transfer Through Trophic Levels.- References.- 9 Survival in a Hostile Environment. Evaluation of the Developmental Success of the Oligophagous Leaf Beetle Chrysomela vigintipunctata (Scop).- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Chemical Defence in Adults and Larvae.- 9.3 Feeding Preference and Oviposition. Not All Mothers Know Best.- 9.4 Fecundity.- 9.5 Feeding Performance of Larvae and Developmental Rates.- 9.6 Impact of Predators and Parasitoids.- 9.7 Pre-diapause Feeding of Adults and Induction of Diapause.- 9.8 Secondary Compounds of S. alba and S. fragilis Leaves.- 9.9 Life Tables and k-factor Analysis.- References.- 10 Ecdysteroids in Pycnogonids: Hormones and Interspecific Allelochemicals.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Experimental Work with Pycnogonids.- 10.3 Ecdysteroids in Pycnogonum litorale.- 10.3.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Ecdysteroid Analyses.- 10.3.2 Origin of Ecdysteroids.- 10.3.3 Hormonal Effects.- 10.3.4 Allelochemical Effects.- 10.3.4.1 Experimental Evidence for Defensive Functions of Ecdysteroids.- 10.3.4.2 Storage and Secretion of Ecdysteroids.- 10.3.4.3 Perception of Ecdysteroids in Decapod Crustaceans.- 10.4 Conclusions.- 10.4.1 Defensive Secretion in Marine Arthropods.- 10.4.2 Zooecdysteroids as Feeding Deterrents.- 10.4.3 Evolution of Chemical Defence in Pycnogonids.- References.- D Phytophages and Their Enemies: Interactions Between Aphids and Their Predators and Parasitoids.- 11 Growth and Development in Parasitoid Wasps: Adaptation to Variable Host Resources.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Models of Parasitoid Growth.- 11.3 Patterns of Resource Utilization.- 11.3.1 Idiobiont Parasitoids.- 11.3.2 Koinobiont Parasitoids.- 11.4 Sexual Dimorphism in Parasitoid Growth.- 11.5 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Patch Quality and Fitness in Predatory Ladybirds.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Ladybird Aphid System.- 12.2.1 Optimal Foraging by Ladybirds.- 12.2.2 Assessment of Patch Quality.- 12.2.2.1 Field Observations.- 12.2.2.2 Laboratory Observations.- 12.2.3 Cannibalism.- 12.2.3.1 Prudent Predators.- 12.2.3.2 Evolution of Cannibalism.- 12.3 Aphidophaga Guilds.- 12.4 Biological Control.- 12.5 Evolution of Life-History Traits.- 12.6 Conclusions.- References.- 13 Interactions Between Ants and Aphid Parasitoids: Patterns and Consequences for Resource Utilization.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Patterns of Interactions.- 13.3 Evolutionary Strategies and Resource Utilization in Ant-Aphidiid Interactions.- 13.3.1 Parasitoid Species Without Adaptations to Ant Attendance.- 13.3.2 Species That Avoid Ant Aggression.- 13.3.2.1 Species with General Behavioural Adaptations.- 13.3.2.2 Parasitoid Species with Specific Adaptations to Ant Attendance.- 13.3.3 Benefits from Ant Attendance for Aphidiid Wasps.- 13.3.4 Distribution in Habitats.- 13.4 Conclusions.- References.- 14 The Relative Importance of Host Plants, Natural Enemies and Ants in the Evolution of Life-History Characters in Aphids.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 The Association Between Aphids and Their Host Plants.- 14.3 The Influence of Predators and Parasitoids on Behavioural Traits of Aphids.- 14.3.1 Defence Behaviour Shown by U. jaceae to Attacks by C. septempunctata.- 14.3.2 Defence Behavior Shown by U. jaceae to Attacks by A. funebris.- 14.4 Patterns of Aphid-Ant Associations.- 14.5 Dynamics in the Aphid-Ant Relationships and Possible Life-History Effects for Tended Aphids.- 14.6 Synthesis and Conclusions.- References.- E Community Organization and Diversity in Multitrophic Terrestrial Systems.- 15 Diversities of Aphidopha in Relationship to Local Dynamics of Some Host Alternating Aphid Species.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Sampling and Patterns of Local Cereal Aphid Populations.- 15.3 Dynamics of Aphid Populations and Associated Aphidophagous Species.- 15.3.1 Stationary Populations on Wild Roses and Bird Cherry.- 15.3.2 Non-Equilibrium Populations on Wild Rose and Bird Cherry.- 15.3.3 Non-Equilibrium Aphid Populations on Cereal Crops.- 15.4 Differentiation of Diversities.- 15.5 Conclusions.- References.- 16 Organization Patterns in a Tritrophic Plant-Insect System: Hemipteran Communities in Hedges and Forest Margins.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 The Tritrophic Plant-Insect System: Hemiptera on Woody Plants of Hedges and Forest Margins.- 16.2.1 Data Sets and System Components.- 16.2.2 Traits on the Plant Level: Resource Availability.- 16.2.3 Traits on Consumer Levels.- 16.3 Food Web Interactions: Resource Dynamics, Resource Exploitation, Population Variability and Community Dynamics.- 16.4 Resource and Habitat Diversity, Surface Area and Local Species Richness.- 16.5 Linking Ecology and Evolution: Body Size Relationships in Hemipteran Communities.- 16.6 Conclusions.- References.- 17 Biodiversity in Three Trophic Levels of the Vineyard Agro-Ecosystem in Northern Switzerland.- 17.1 The Vineyard Agro-Ecosystem in Northerii Switzerland.- 17.1.1 Biodiversity as Important Element of Modern Sustainable Viticulture.- 17.1.2 Characteristics of the Study Sites.- 17.2 The First Trophic Level: Flora.- 17.2.1 The Development of Permanent Ground Cover.- 17.2.2 Spatial Differentiation of Habitats in the Vineyard.- 17.2.3 Plant Communities in Relation to Habitat and Management Techniques.- 17.2.4 Ways to Enhance Plant Species Richness in the Different Habitats.- 17.3 The Second and Third Trophic Level: Herbivores and Entomophagous Species.- 17.3.1 Sampling Methods.- 17.3.2 Composition and Dynamics of the Faunistic Complex in 21 Vineyards in Northern Switzerland.- 17.3.3 Comments to Table 17.3.- 17.4 Interactions Between the Three Trophic Levels.- 17.4.1 General Influence of Plant Species Richness on Arthropod Diversity.- 17.4.2 Plant Species Richness and the Grape Moth Eupoecilia ambiguella.- 17.4.3 Flowering Cover Plants and the Predatory Mite Typhlodromus pyri.- 17.4.4 Host Plants Outside the Vineyard Essential for the Parasitoids of the Grape Leafhopper Empoasca vitis.- 17.4.5 Present Knowledge of the Ecological Significance of Individual Plant Species in the Undercover and Adjacent Hedges.- 17.5 Habitat Management in Vineyards: How to Improve Botanical Diversity?.- 17.5.1 Aims of the Vineyard Undergrowth Management.- 17.5.2 Enhancing Habitat Diversity (? Diversity).- 17.5.3 Increasing Species Richness in the Plant Communities of the Vineyard.- References.- 18 Landscape Dynamics, Plant Architecture and Demography, and the Response of Herbivores.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 The Biotic Components.- 18.2.1 The Salicaceae.- 18.2.2 The Herbivores and Carnivores.- 18.3 Landscape Dynamics in Space.- 18.3.1 Disturbance.- 18.3.2 Plant Responses.- 18.3.3 Herbivore and Carnivore Responses.- 18.4 Landscape Dynamics in Time.- 18.5 Predictions on the Richness of Sawflies on Host-Plant Species.- 18.5.1 Ecological Predictions.- 18.5.2 Evolutionary Predictions.- References.- F Synopsis.- 19 Evolutionary Patterns and Driving Forces in Vertical Food Web Interactions.- 19.1 Introduction.- 19.2 The Influence of Life History Variation on the Evolution of Vertical Food Web Interactions.- 19.2.1 The Exploitation System.- 19.2.1.1 Interactive Versus Non-Interactive Systems.- 19.2.1.2 Predation Versus Parasitism.- 19.2.1.3 Unpredictable Versus Predictable Resources.- 19.2.1.4 Relationship Between the Generation Times of Resource and Consumer.- 19.2.1.5 Synchronization Between Resource and Consumer.- 19.2.2 Size Constraints.- 19.3 Chemical Ecology in Vertical Food Web Interactions.- 19.3.1 Volatiles from Plants or Herbivores Affecting Organisms on Higher Trophic Levels.- 19.3.2 Chemical Defenses of Insects.- 19.3.2.1 Strategies of Insects Ingesting and Sequestering Toxicants.- 19.3.2.2 De Novo Synthesis Versus Exogenously Derived Toxicants.- 19.3.2.3 Transfer of Toxicants Through Developmental Stages of an Individual.- 19.3.2.4 Transfer of Toxicants Through Higher Trophic Levels.- 19.3.2.4.1 Effects of Sequestered Compounds Against Predators.- 19.3.2.4.2 Effects of Sequestered Compounds Against Parasitoids.- 19.3.2.5 Driving Forces of Toxin Transfer Through Trophic Levels.- 19.4 Consequences for Biological Control.- References.- Species Index.