Satellite Hydrocarbon Exploration

1 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Technology, Interpretation and Integration.- 1 Imaging Systems.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 The Multispectral Scanning System.- 1.2.1 The Advantages of Multispectral Imaging.- 1.2.2 A Word of Caution.- 1.3 The Thematic Mapper.- 1.3.1 Changes in Spectral Range.- 1.3.2 Advantages of Increased Spatial Resolution and Spectral Range.- 1.4 The SPOT Satellite.- 1.4.1 Off-Nadir Viewing Capabilities.- 1.5 Radar Imagery.- 1.5.1 Background.- 1.5.1.1 Factors Affecting Reflection Intensity.- 1.5.1.2 Factors Affecting Resolution — Range Resolution.- 1.5.1.3 Factors Affecting Resolution Azimuth Resolution.- 1.5.2 Advantages of Mapping with Radar Imagery.- 1.5.2.1 Cloud Penetration.- 1.5.2.2 “Treetop Geology”.- 1.5.2.3 Surface Roughness Detection.- 1.5.2.4 Preferred Look Directions.- 1.5.2.5 Stereo Radar Imaging of Geological Structures.- 1.5.3 Problems with Radar Imagery.- 1.5.3.1 Slant Range Images.- 1.5.3.2 Layover.- 1.5.4 Spaceborne Radar Systems in Use.- 1.5.5 Future Spaceborne Radar Systems.- 1.5.6 Evaluation of Space Radar.- 1.6 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 2 Digital Image Manipulation.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Imagery Enhancement Techniques.- 2.2.1 Contrast Stretching.- 2.2.2 Standard False-Color Imagery.- 2.2.3 Intensity, Hue and Saturation Transformations.- 2.2.4 Ratio Enhancement.- 2.2.5 Edge Enhancement.- 2.3 Information Extraction Techniques.- 2.3.1 Spectral Classification.- 2.3.2 Supervised Classification.- 2.3.3 Unsupervised Classification.- 2.4 Merged Imagery.- 2.5 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 3 Image Interpretation Techniques: Exposed Structures.- 3.1 Definitions and Classification.- 3.2 Analysis of Exposed Folds.- 3.2.1 Dip and Strike of Inclined Bedrock Strata.- 3.2.2 Landforms Related to Inclined Bedrock Strata.- 3.2.3 Shadowing Effects.- 3.2.4 Geomorphic Expressions of Different Fold Types.- 3.2.5 Complications in the Expressions of Folded Strata.- 3.3 Analysis of Exposed Faults.- 3.3.1 Surface Expressions of Fault Scarps.- 3.3.2 Geomorphic Expressions of Different Fault Types.- 3.3.2.1 Multidirectional Positive.- 3.3.2.2 Parallel Composite.- 3.3.2.3 Linear Negative.- 3.3.2.4 Sinuous Positive.- 3.3.3 Modification of Fault-Line Traces.- 3.3.3.1 Inverted.- 3.3.3.2 Pseudo-Fault.- 3.3.3.3 Polyphase.- 3.4 Surface and Structural Patterns of Different Structural Styles.- 3.4.1 Compressional vs. Extensional Basement-Involved Fault Block Styles.- 3.4.2 Wrench Fault Assemblages.- 3.4.3 Dêcollement Thrust Fault Assemblages.- 3.4.4 Regional Structural Analysis.- 3.4.5 Reactivated Structures and Superimposed Styles.- 3.4.6 Word of Caution.- 3.5 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 4 Image Interpretation Techniques: Obscured and Buried Structures.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1 Mechanisms of Surface Expression.- 4.2 Analysis Criteria.- 4.2.1 Structurally Controlled Streams.- 4.2.2 Structurally Controlled Streams Related to Piping and Sapping.- 4.2.3 Brightness and Spectral Variations.- 4.2.4 Classification and Analysis of Lineaments and Linear Features.- 4.2.4.1 Lineament Analysis.- 4.2.4.2 Analysis of Linear Features.- 4.3 Reconstruction Techniques.- 4.3.1 Topographic Models of Obscured and Buried Folded Strata.- 4.3.2 Geomorphic Investigation of Domal Topography.- 4.3.3 Subsurface Reconstruction of Domal Topography.- 4.4 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 5 Interpretation Techniques: Detection and Analysis of Basement Warp Structures.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Previous Studies.- 5.3 Principles of Integrating Reconnaissance Data Sets.- 5.4 Classification of Basement Structures.- 5.4.1 Exposed Basement Structures.- 5.4.1.1 First-Order Basement Structures.- 5.4.1.2 Second-Order Basement Structures.- 5.4.1.3 Third-Order Basement Structures.- 5.4.2 Basement Warp Structures (Buried and Obscured).- 5.4.2.1 First-Order Basement Warp Structures.- 5.4.2.2 Second-Order Basement Warp Structures.- 5.4.2.3 Third-Order Basement Warp Structures.- 5.5 Diagnostic Surface Features of Basement Warp Structures.- 5.5.1 Subsequent Incised Valleys.- 5.5.2 Transverse Incised Valleys.- 5.5.3 Cuesta Topography.- 5.6 Specialized Interpretation Tools.- 5.6.1 Structurally Controlled Incised Valleys in the Belle Fourche Arch Area, Powder River Basin.- 5.6.1.1 Introduction.- 5.6.1.2 Surface and Subsurface Expressions of the Belle Fourche Arch.- 5.6.1.3 Geological Model of the Belle Fourche Arch.- 5.6.1.4 Exploration Application.- 5.7 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 6 Interpretation Techniques: Structural Mapping with Stereo Data.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Principles of Stereo.- 6.2.1 Concepts of Visual Depth Perception.- 6.2.2 Concepts of Simulated Depth Perception.- 6.2.3 Common Stereoscopic Distortions.- 6.2.3.1 Vertical Exaggeration.- 6.2.3.2 Pseudoscopic Illusions.- 6.3 Principles for Geological Mapping with Stereo Data.- 6.3.1 The Floating Dot Principle and Parallax Bars.- 6.3.2 Quantitative Measurements of Dips and Strikes.- 6.3.3 Creating a Form-Line Surface Structure (FSS) Map.- 6.4 Tools for Geological Mapping with Stereo Data.- 6.4.1 Stereo Pair Alignment.- 6.4.2 Simple Optical Stereoscopes.- 6.4.3 Complex and Analytical Stereoscopes.- 6.4.4 Digital Image Correlation.- 6.5 Evaluation of Different Stereo Data.- 6.5.1 SPOT vs. High-Altitude Photography in Low Relief Areas.- 6.5.2 SPOT vs. Field Data in Highly Deformed Areas.- 6.6 Exploration Applications.- 6.7 Selecting Stereo Data for Structural Mapping.- 6.8 Incorporating Stereo Capabilities.- 6.9 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 7 Structural Analysis of Sedimentary Basins.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Approach.- 7.3 Analysis of Fractured Reservoir Trends in the Swiss Molasse Basin.- 7.3.1 Objectives.- 7.3.2 Approach.- 7.3.3 Geological Settings of the Molasse Basin.- 7.3.4 Exploration in the Swiss Molasse.- 7.3.5 Regional Analysis of Satellite Imagery.- 7.3.6 Analysis of the Basin’s Margins.- 7.4 Basin Interior.- 7.4.1 Subsurface Data.- 7.4.2 Swiss Molasse Play Concept.- 7.4.3 Prospective Leads from the Swiss Molasse.- 7.5 Detection of Buried Triassic Basins in the Coastal Plains of the Eastern United States.- 7.5.1 Objectives.- 7.5.2 Geological Setting of the Mesozoic Basins.- 7.5.3 Satellite Imagery Interpretation.- 7.5.4 Regional Gravity and Magnetic Data Interpretation.- 7.6 Detailed Analysis of Known Buried Basins.- 7.6.1 Geological/Geophysical Model of Buried Triassic Basins.- 7.6.2 Structural Lead Map.- 7.6.3 Conclusions and Recommendations.- 7.7 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- 8 Other Applications.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Principles of Direct Detection of Hydrocarbons.- 8.2.1 Prototype Example — The Velma Field, Oklahoma.- 8.2.1.1 Background Information.- 8.2.1.2 Surface Manifestations.- 8.2.1.3 Imagery.- 8.2.2 Other Related Studies.- 8.2.2.1 Conclusions.- 8.3 Outcrop Studies.- 8.4 Logistical and Environmental Applications.- 8.5 Summary.- References and Further Reading.- Closing Remarks.- 2 Additional Examples of Remote Sensing Interpretation and Integration.- 9 The Salt Flat Graben, West Texas.- 9.1 Background.- 9.2 Objectives.- 9.3 Training Instructions.- 9.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 9.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- 10 Death Valley Region, Nevada and California.- 10.1 Background.- 10.2 Objectives.- 10.3 Training Instructions.- 10.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 10.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- 11 The Fort St. John Graben, Western Canada.- 11.1 Background.- 11.2 Objectives.- 11.3 Training Instructions.- 11.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 11.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- 12 The Canadian Foreland Fold and Thrust Belt, Northern British Columbia.- 12.1 Background.- 12.2 Objectives.- 12.3 Training Instructions.- 12.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 12.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- 13 The Paris Basin, France.- 13.1 Background.- 13.2 Objectives.- 13.3 Training Instructions.- 13.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 13.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- 14 The East Texas Region.- 14.1 Background.- 14.2 Objectives.- 14.3 Training Instructions.- 14.3.1 Interpretation Procedures.- 14.3.2 Questions.- References and Further Reading.- Appendices.- A. List of Symbols Used in the Interpretation of Imagery Data.- B. Abbreviations Used on Image.- C. Drainage Patterns.- D. Major Sources of Images.- Location Index.