Principles and Applications of Hydrochemistry

1 Introduction.- 2 Principles of hydrochemistry.- 2.1 Chemical concepts.- 2.1.1 Water as a chemical substance.- 2.1.2 Dissolution of chemical substances in water.- 2.1.3 Ionic exchange and sorption.- 2.1.4 Oxidation-reduction.- 2.1.5 Measures and units in hydrochemistry.- 2.2 Physical chemistry applied to natural waters.- 2.2.1 The law of mass action.- 2.2.2 The ionic product of water.- 2.2.3 Gas-liquid equilibria.- 2.2.4 Dissociation of weak acids.- 2.2.5 Liquid-solid equilibria.- 2.2.6 Oxidation-reduction equilibria.- References.- Further reading.- 3 Chemical processes in the water cycle.- 3.1 Deposition of soluble substances by rain and snow, fog and rime, and by dry deposition.- 3.1.1 Origin of dissolved substances in rain and snow.- 3.1.2 Composition of precipitation.- 3.1.3 Analysis of the data.- 3.1.4 Wet deposition.- 3.1.5 Deposition by fog and rime.- 3.1.6 Dry deposition.- 3.1.1 Exudation by vegetation.- 3.1.2 Deposition through leaching and decay of litter.- 3.1.3 Effects of human activity on deposition of chemical constituents.- 3.2 Processes in the root zone in groundwater recharge areas.- 3.2.1 The root zone.- 3.2.2 Effects of evapotranspiration on dissolved salts.- 3.2.3 The oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, atmosphere-soil.- 3.2.4 Chemical weathering in the root zone.- 3.2.5 Effects of changing biological activity in the soil.- 3.2.6 Effects of water-logging.- 3.3 Processes in the intermediate zone.- 3.3.1 Definitions and hydrological concepts.- 3.3.2 Gas exchange, intermediate zone-root zone.- 3.3.3 Chemical reactions in the intermediate zone.- 3.3.4 Mineralogical zonation.- 3.4 Processes in the water saturated zone (groundwater).- 3.4.1 The solid matrix of the saturated zone.- 3.4.2 Gas exchange between the intermediate zone and the saturated zone.- 3.4.3 Chemical reactions in the saturated zone.- 3.5 Processes in groundwater discharge areas.- 3.5.1 Definition and description of discharge areas.- 3.5.2 Effects of evapotranspiration on dissolved salts.- 3.5.3 Calcite precipitation in groundwater discharge areas.- 3.5.4 Oxidation-reduction processes in groundwater discharge areas.- 3.5.5 Ionic exchange in groundwater discharge areas.- 3.5.6 Dissolution of organic matter in groundwater discharge areas.- 3.6 Processes in lakes and water courses.- 3.6.1 Definitions.- 3.6.2 Chemical processes in surface waters.- 3.6.3 Effects of biological processes.- 3.6.4 Concluding remarks.- References.- Further reading.- 4 Models of reservoirs and the flux of chemical constituents in basins.- 4.1 Concepts and definitions.- 4.2 A conceptual lumped budget model for groundwater recharge areas.- 4.3 A conceptual lumped budget model for groundwater discharge areas.- 4.4 Distributed models and their limitations.- References.- Further reading.- 5 Environmental isotopes in hydrology and hydrochemistry.- 5.1 Radioactive isotopes of hydrogen, carbon and chloride.- 5.1.1 Tritium.- 5.1.2 Radioactive carbon, 14C.- 5.1.3 Radioactive chlorine, 36C1.- 5.2 Stable isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen.- References.- Further reading.- 6 Applications of hydrochemistry and environmental isotopes.- 6.1 Hydrochemical monitoring.- 6.1.1 Selection of sampling intervals.- 6.1.2 Selection of sampling points.- 6.1.3 Data analysis.- 6.2 Chemical budgets of basins.- 6.2.1 Sampling problems.- 6.2.2 Budget calculations.- 6.2.3 Information from chloride budget studies.- 6.3 Use of chloride and environmental isotopes in groundwater investigations.- 6.3.1 Calculation of groundwater recharge rates from chloride concentrations in groundwater.- 6.3.2 Computation of groundwater recharge from hydrochemical data and groundwater flow patterns.- 6.3.3 Interpretation of hydrochemistry patterns in groundwater in semi-arid climates.- 6.3.4 14C-dating of groundwater.- 6.3.5 The origins of groundwater as derived from hydrochemistry and stable isotopes.- 6.3.6 Study of the run-off process using environmental isotopes.- 6.4 The effects of acid deposition.- 6.4.1 The hydrogen ion budget of the vegetation-root zone system in groundwater recharge areas.- 6.4.2 The metal cation balance in the vegetation-root zone system in groundwater recharge areas.- 6.4.3 The influence of acid deposition on the metal cation balance of the root zone in groundwater recharge areas.- 6.4.4 Acid precipitation and the hydrogen ion balance of basins.- References.- Further reading.- Appendices.- Appendix A.- Appendix B.- Appendix C.