Contemporary Issues in International Law

Foreword xvii

Part I The Rise of International Criminal Law and the Creation of the International Criminal Court
1 Present and Past 3
1.1 From the 1990s Onwards 3
1.2 Historical Notes 5
1.2.1 The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg (IMT) 6
1.2.2 Subsequent Nuremberg Trials 8
1.2.3 The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) – Tokyo Military Tribunal 9
1.2.4 Effect of the Cold War 10
1.2.5 Legacy of the MIT and the IMTFE 10

2 The Ad Hoc Tribunals for the Crimes Committed in Former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda 15
2.1 The International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 15
2.1.1 Jurisdiction of ICTY 16
2.1.1.1 Grave Breaches 17
2.1.1.2 Genocide 18
2.1.1.3 Violation of the Laws or Customs of War (War Crimes) 19
2.1.1.4 Definitions of Gender Crimes 19
2.1.1.5 Torture 20
2.1.1.6 Crimes Against Humanity 20
2.1.2 Modes of Liability and Participation 21
2.1.2.1 Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE) 21
2.1.2.2 Extension of Commission 21
2.1.2.3 Aiding and Abetting 22
2.1.2.4 Command Responsibility 22
2.1.3 Prosecutions and Judgments 24
2.2 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 24
2.2.1 Jurisdiction of ICTR 26
2.2.2 Genocide 26
2.2.2.1 Rape as Genocide 28
2.2.2.2 Incitement to Genocide – The Media Case 28
2.2.3 Crimes Against Humanity 29
2.2.3.1 Rape as a Crime Against Humanity 29
2.2.4 War Crimes 30
2.2.4.1 Elements to Be Ascertained 30
2.2.4.2 Command Responsibility 32
2.2.5 Prosecutions and Judgments 33
2.3 Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (MICT) 33

3 Other Courts: Mixed or Hybrid Tribunals 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) 35
3.2.1 The Cases 36
3.3 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) 37
3.3.1 The Cases 38
3.3.2 Concluding Remarks 42
3.4 The Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) 43
3.4.1 Trials In Absentia 47
3.4.2 The Cases 48

4 The International Criminal Court (ICC) 49
4.1 Scope 49
4.2 Crimes Under the Jurisdiction of the ICC 49
4.2.1 Genocide 49
4.2.1.1 Historical Notes 50
4.2.1.2 Genocide Under Article 6 of the ICC Statute 51
4.2.2 Crimes Against Humanity 52
4.2.2.1 Historical Notes 52
4.2.2.2 Crimes Against Humanity Under Article 7 of the ICC Statute 55
4.2.3 War Crimes 56
4.2.3.1 Historical Notes 58
4.2.3.2 Criminalization of Violations of International Humanitarian Law 60
4.2.3.3 Basic Principles of IHL 61
4.2.3.4 War Crimes Under Article 8 of the ICC Statute 62
4.2.4 Issues Related to War Crimes Under the ICC Statute 63
4.2.4.1 Nexus With Armed Conflict 63
4.2.4.2 Persons Responsible for the Commission of War Crimes 63
4.2.4.3 Victims of War Crimes 64
4.2.4.4 International and Non-International Armed Conflicts 65
4.2.4.5 Crimes Committed in International Armed Conflict 69
4.2.4.6 Crimes Committed in Non-International Conflicts (Art. 8(2)(c) and (e)) 73
4.2.5 The Crime of Aggression 75
4.2.5.1 Aggression as Illegal State Action 77
4.2.5.2 Aggression as a Crime Entailing Individual Criminal Responsibility 79
4.2.5.3 The 2010 Kampala Review Conference and the Adoption of Amendments to the Rome Statute Regarding Aggression 87
4.2.5.4 The 2017 Assembly of States Parties (ASP) 94
4.2.5.5 Assessment of the Aggression Amendments 95
4.3 Cases, Situations, Prosecutions, Judgments 97
5 Conclusions 103

Part II Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law in the Face of Terrorism
6 Notes on Human Rights Law 109
6.1 Advancements and Setbacks After World War II 109
6.2 The Concept of Human Rights Law 110
6.2.1 Indivisibility of Human Rights 111
6.2.2 Human Rights in the U.N. Context 111
6.2.3 Regional Agreements 113
6.3 Implementation and Application 114
6.3.1 The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 114
6.3.2 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 115
6.3.3 The African Court of Justice and Human Rights (AfCHPR) 116
6.3.4 Mechanisms Established by U.N. Human Rights Treaties 117
6.4 Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Law 120
6.5 Humanitarian Intervention and Responsibility to Protect 123

7 Notes on International Humanitarian Law 125
7.1 Scope and Sources of IHL 125
7.2 Simultaneous Applicability of Human Rights Law (IHRL) and International Humanitarian Law (IHL) in Armed Conflict 126
7.3 Possibility of Conflict Between IHL and IHRL 129

8 Notes on International Terrorism 131
8.1 Past and Present of the Phenomenon 131
8.2 Combatting Terrorism in the U.N. Context 132
8.2.1 U.N. Conventions on Terrorism 132
8.2.2 U.N. Resolutions on Terrorism and Related Measures 133
8.2.3 The Question of the Definition of Terrorism 135
8.2.4 Regional Agreements on Terrorism 137
8.3 The Rome Statute and Terrorist Crimes 138
8.4 On the Subject of ISIS 139
8.4.1 ISIS Crimes and the ICC 141
8.5 Human Rights While Countering Terrorism 143
8.5.1 The Problems and the Means to Confront Them 143
8.5.1.1 The U.N. Efforts 143
8.5.1.2 The EU Judicial Control as a New Paradigm 146
8.5.2 International Human Rights Instruments and the Possibility of Restrictions (Limitations) or Derogations 148
8.5.2.1 The Possibility of Restrictions (Limitations) 148
8.5.2.2 The Possibility of Derogations 149
8.5.2.3 Non-derogable Human Rights 152
8.6 International Humanitarian Law While Countering Terrorism 154
8.6.1 Acts of Terrorism Under IHL 154
8.7 International Refugee Law While Countering Terrorism 155

9 Two Cases of Clash Between IHRL and Counterterrorism Measures 159
9.1 Guantanamo Detainees 159
9.1.1 Global War on Terror 159
9.1.2 Human Rights Violations 160
9.1.2.1 Extraterritorial Application of the ICCPR 161
9.1.3 Military Commissions 161
9.2 Targeted Killings 163
9.2.1 Introduction 163
9.2.2 Definition and Context 165
9.2.3 Targeted Killings Conducted in Self-Defence 166
9.2.3.1 The Wider Issue: Self-Defence Against Non-State Actors 166
9.2.3.2 Theories in Relation to Self-Defence Against Non-State Actors 167
9.2.3.3 Anticipatory and Pre-emptive Self-Defence 169
9.2.3.4 Self-Defence (Including by Targeted Killings) in the Case of ‘Unable or Unwilling’ State 170
9.2.3.5 Lawfulness of Self-Defence Claim 171
9.2.3.6 The U.S. Doctrine on Self-Defence Against Non-State Actors (Including by Targeted Killings) 171
9.2.3.7 Concluding Remarks on Self-Defence, Including by Targeted Killings, Against Non-State Actors 175
9.2.4 Consent of the Territorial State to Targeted Killing and Lack Thereof 177
9.2.4.1 Lack of Consent 177
9.2.5 Targeted Killings in Armed Conflict 178
9.2.5.1 Targeted Killings in International Armed Conflict (IAC) 178
9.2.5.2 Targeted Killings in Non-international Armed Conflict (NIAC) 179
9.2.5.3 Targeted Killings Outside the Context of an Armed Conflict 181
9.2.5.4 Extraterritorial Application of IHRL in the Case of Targeted Killings 182
9.2.5.5 The Law Enforcement Model 182
9.2.6 Use of Drones (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – UAVs) in Targeted Killings 183
9.2.6.1 ‘Collateral Damage’ in Targeted Killings by Drone 185
9.2.6.2 Signature Strikes 185
9.2.6.3 Transparency and Accountability 185

10 Conclusions 187

Part III Aspects of International Law of the Sea
11 UNCLOS and Maritime Zones 193
11.1 UNCLOS 193
11.2 Maritime Zones Under UNCLOS 196
11.2.1 Territorial Sea 196
11.2.1.1 Territorial Sea of Islands 197
11.2.1.2 Delimitation of the Territorial Sea 197
11.2.1.3 Delimitation in the Presence of Islands 199
11.2.1.4 The Slovenia/Croatia Case (Arbitration) 202
11.2.2 Jurisdictional Zones 205
11.2.2.1 Contiguous Zone 205
11.2.2.2 Continental Shelf (CS) 206
11.2.2.3 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 207
11.2.2.4 Delimitation of Jurisdictional Zones (CS, EEZ) 208
11.2.2.5 Relevant Circumstances 210
11.2.2.6 Delimitation of the CS and EEZ of Islands 212
11.2.2.7 Delimitation of a Single Maritime Boundary 213
11.2.2.8 Relationship between ‘Special’ and ‘Relevant’ Circumstances and the Median Line (Equidistance) as an Equitable Solution 214
11.2.2.9 Methodology of Delimitation of Jurisdictional Zones 215
11.2.2.10 Prior Agreements 217

12 A Specific Case of CS Delimitation: The Arctic Ocean 219
12.1 Introduction 219
12.2 Effects of Climate Change 219
12.3 The Legal Situation 221
12.3.1 Russia and Norway 221
12.3.2 Norway and Denmark 223
12.3.3 U.S. and Canada 223
12.3.4 Canada and Denmark 224
12.3.5 U.S. and Russia 225
12.4 Arctic Continental Shelf Claims Beyond 200 n.m. 226
12.4.1 Norway Submissions 227
12.4.2 Russia Submissions 228
12.4.3 Canada Submissions 228
12.4.4 Denmark Submissions 228
12.4.5 Difficulties in Defining the Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf 229
12.4.6 Settlement of Disputes 229
12.5 Concluding Remarks 230

13 Two Cases Involving Sovereignty Issues Over Islands (East China Sea and South China Sea Islands) 231
13.1 The Land Dominates the Sea 231
13.2 East China Sea Islands 232
13.2.1 Diaoyu or Senkaku Islands 232
13.2.2 Chinese and Japanese Positions and Arguments – Relevant Treaties 233
13.2.3 Concluding Remarks 235
13.3 South China Sea Islands 236
13.3.1 Spratly and Paracel Islands 236
13.3.2 The South China Sea 237
13.3.3 Claims Over the Spratly Islands 237
13.3.4 Claims Over the Paracel Islands 238
13.3.5 Positions and Arguments of the Parties to the Dispute Over the Paracel and the Spratly Islands – Historical Elements 238
13.3.6 The ‘Nine-Dash Line’ 240
13.3.7 The South China Sea Arbitration and Award 242

14 Piracy 245
14.1 Introduction 245
14.2 Historical Notes 245
14.3 Piracy and Armed Robbery in Recent Years 248
14.3.1 Piracy Off the Coast of Somalia 248
14.3.1.1 Deployment of Naval Forces 249
14.3.1.2 The Contact Group 250
14.3.1.3 The International Maritime Organization (IMO) 250
14.3.1.4 The Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 251
14.3.1.5 Regional Action and Initiatives 252
14.3.1.6 The ‘Legal Working Group’ (l.w.g) 252
14.3.1.7 Addressing the ‘Root Causes’ 252
14.3.2 Piracy in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asia 253
14.3.2.1 Response to the Problem 254
14.3.3 Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea 254
14.3.3.1 Response to the Problem 256
14.4 International and Domestic Law 257
14.4.1 International Law 257
14.4.1.1 UNCLOS 257
14.4.1.2 Jurisdiction Over Piracy Under UNCLOS 260
14.4.1.3 Piracy Under S.C. Resolutions Adopted in the Case of Somalia 260
14.4.2 Piracy in Domestic Law 261
14.4.2.1 Jurisdiction Over Piracy in Domestic Legislations 262
14.5 Prosecution and Proposed Bases of Jurisdiction 262
14.6 Transfer 264
14.7 Human Rights, Law Enforcement and Collection of Evidence 265
14.7.1 Human Rights Issues 265
14.7.2 Law Enforcement and Collection of Evidence Issues – ‘Shipriders’ 266
14.8 Tribunal(s) for Piracy Cases 266
14.9 Defending Ships from Piracy Attacks and Related Legal Issues 267
14.9.1 Vessel Protection Detachments 267
14.9.2 Privately Contracted Armed Security Personnel (PCASP) 269
14.9.2.1 Applicable Law 269
14.9.2.2 Passage Through the Territorial Sea 272
14.10 Use of Force in Anti-Piracy Operations 272
14.10.1 Use of Force by State Actors 272
14.10.2 Use of Force by Non-State Actors (PCASPs) 273
14.11 Responsibility 274

15 Terrorism at Sea 275
15.1 Legal Response 275
15.1.1 Operational Initiatives 277

16 Conclusions 279

Part IV Water in International Law
17 The Element and the Data 285
17.1 Water Is Life 285
17.1.1 Hydrological Cycle 285
17.1.2 Increasing Demand 286
17.1.3 Contamination and Overexploitation 287
17.1.4 Climate Change and Global Warming 287
17.1.5 Differences in Water Availability 288
17.1.5.1 Response to Water Shortages 288

18 Transboundary Watercourses and Transboundary Basins 291
18.1 Rivers and Lakes 291
18.2 Groundwater 292
18.2.1 Aquifers 292
18.3 Water Disputes 294
18.4 International Water Law 295
18.4.1 Bilateral, Multilateral and Basin Agreements 295
18.4.2 Regional Agreements 296
18.4.3 Universal Agreements 297
18.4.3.1 The New York and Helsinki Conventions: Similarities, Differences and Complementarity 298
18.4.4 Other Instruments 300
18.5 Doctrinal Bases of International Water Law 301
18.6 Groundwater in International Law 302
18.6.1 Agreements Concerning Groundwater 303
18.6.2 Other Legal Texts 305
18.6.3 Some Further Observations on Groundwater 307

19 (Access to) Water as a Human Right 309

20 General Principles of International Water Law 311
20.1 Three Fundamental Principles 311
20.1.1 The Principle of Reasonable and Equitable Utilization 312
20.1.2 The Obligation Not to Cause Significant Harm (No-Harm Rule) 314
20.1.3 Connected Principles 316
20.1.4 Obligation of Cooperation 317

21 Settlement of Water Disputes 319
21.1 The Means for Settlement 319
21.2 Jurisprudence 319
21.2.1 International Court of Justice Judgments 320
21.2.1.1 GabČikovo-Nagymaros (Slovakia/Hungary, 1997) 320
21.2.1.2 The Pulp Mills Case (Argentina v. Uruguay, 2010) 320
21.2.1.3 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) – Question of Compensation 321
21.2.2 Arbitral Awards 322
21.2.3 Other Courts, Instances and Bodies 323

22 Two Cases of Unresolved Disputes 325
22.1 The Nile 325
22.1.1 The River and Its Basin 325
22.1.1.1 Trajectory of the Nile and Related Data 325
22.1.1.2 Historical and Environmental Notes 326
22.1.2 Legal Regime 327
22.1.3 The Nile Basin Initiative 329
22.1.4 Ethiopia’s GERD Project 330
22.1.5 International Law and the Way Forward 331
22.2 Euphrates and Tigris 337
22.2.1 The Rivers and Their Basins 337
22.2.1.1 Trajectories of the Euphrates and the Tigris 338
22.2.1.2 Historical and Environmental Notes 339
22.2.2 Legal Situation 342
22.2.3 Problems and Disputes 345
22.2.4 Armed Conflicts and Their Effects 348
22.2.5 International Law and the Way Forward 349

23 Other Water Issues 351
23.1 Floods 351
23.2 Transboundary Waters and Civil Liability in the Case of Industrial Accidents 353

24 Conclusions 357