Outer Space – Future for Humankind
Issues of Law and Policy
Gebonden Engels 2021 1e druk 9789462362253Samenvatting
Inspired by the vision of the future of humankind in outer space, an international team of technical experts, lawyers and political scientists examined topical issues of law and policy under the leadership of the editors – not only with respect to international space flight and space exploration, but also in view of the safe and sustainable use of space technology for the benefit of our planet. After all, our original habitat should not be sacrificed on our way to Moon and Mars!
In this regard, Outer Space – Future for Humankind examines fundamental questions like the problem of space debris, the safe use of nuclear power sources in outer space, the protection of the ozone layer during space launches, the issue of light pollution and the protection of the marine environment during the guided re-entry of space craft into the High Seas. In addition to these problems of technical nature, questions relating to the peaceful, equitable and responsible use of outer space are explored also with regard to issues as space traffic management which must be solved by scientists, lawyers and politicians on an international scale, and supported by an again increasingly interested general public.
Specificaties
Lezersrecensies
Inhoudsopgave
Part I Looking Ahead
1 Outer Space and Science Fiction 3
Gary L. Bennett
1 Introduction 3
2 Origins of Science Fiction 4
3 Early Fictional Flights into Outer Space 6
4 Destination Moon 8
5 Flight to Mars 13
6 The Stars Our Destination 17
7 Law in Science Fiction 20
8 Science Fiction Inspirations 23
9 Concluding Remarks 24
2 Space Tourism: Reality Soon? 25
Marietta Benkö and Gabriele Röhn
1 Space Tourism: Still a Futuristic Project? 26
2 Risks Involved 26
3 Legal Framework 27
4 Some Environmental Aspects 28
3 New Space and Newest Space 31
Dmitry Payson
1 Introduction 31
2 Space Markets and Commercial Space 32
3 New Space Emerges 35
4 Space Dichotomies 35
4.1 Applied and Non-Applied 36
4.2 Commercial and Not-For-Profit 37
4.3 Public and Private 37
4.4 Budgetary and Extrabudgetary 38
4.5 Products and Projects 38
5 New Actors Come In 39
6 New Businesses for Newest Space 42
7 Institutions Follow 44
4 Space Colonies: Is History Repeating? 51
Jean-François Mayence
1 Foreword 51
2 Introduction 51
3 The Frontier 53
3.1 The Frontier, an American Concept with European Roots 54
3.2 Appropriating New Worlds 56
4 From Space Colonies to Space States 58
4.1 The Overview Effect 58
4.2 The Colonization Process 59
4.3 The Secession Process 63
4.4 The Issue of Resources 64
5 Conclusion 67
5 Extra-Terrestrial Human Bases at the Crossroads of Economic and Space Law 69
Philippe Clerc
1 Overview of the Issues 69
1.1 Specificity of Human Bases Located on Extra-Terrestrial Soil 70
1.2 A New Debate that Shifts to the Field of Economic Law 71
1.2.1 Legitimacy of States Intervention 71
1.2.2 Legitimacy of Space Law to Deal with Economic Issues 73
1.2.3 Private Appropriation of Natural Resources 74
1.2.4 International Governance Regime 75
1.2.5 Benefit-Sharing vs. Return on Investment 76
1.3 Lines of Convergence 77
2 Title for Land Occupation 78
2.1 Land Title for Limited Use and Duration (LTLUD) 79
2.1.1 Legal Instruments for Dismantling Land Title 80
2.1.2 Terms and Conditions of Title Dismantling 81
2.1.3 Legal Effects of the Land Title for Limited Use and Duration (LTLUD) 82
2.2 Marginal Utility of Claiming Title on Resources 82
2.2.1 Untitled Operator’s Alternative Rights 82
2.2.2 Volatility of Ownership on Resources 83
3 Facility Operations: Governance and Licensing 85
3.1 Governance Scheme 85
3.2 Building Permits (Aedificandi Auctoritas) 87
3.2.1 Building Permit Terms and Conditions 87
3.2.2 Building Permit Legal Effects 88
3.3 License for Development and Operations 88
3.3.1 License Terms and Conditions 89
3.3.2 License Legal Effects 89
4 Conclusion 90
6 Perspectives for Outer Space as a ‘Global Common’ 93
Kai-Uwe Schrogl
1 The Concept of the ‘Global Commons’ Under Pressure 93
2 Innovative International Law 94
3 Characterising the Three ‘Global Commons’ 95
4 Key Conflict Issues 97
5 For a New Approach to Managing the ‘Global Commons’: Moratoria, Thresholds, Fees, Codes of Conduct 99
Part II Conflicts and Challenges
7 International Challenges to the Safety, Security and Sustainability of
Outer Space Activities 105
Gerard Brachet and Peter Martinez
1 Introduction 105
2 Cause for Concern 106
3 Some Numbers 108
4 Threats Resulting from Increasing Traffic in Outer Space 110
5 Threats Resulting from Aggressive Behaviours in Outer Space 113
6 Initiatives within the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space 114
7 The European Union’s Proposal for an International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities 116
8 Russia and China’s Proposal for a Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space 118
9 The UN Group of Governmental Experts on TCBMs in Outer Space Activities 119
10 Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space 120
11 UN Resolution on “Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours” 122
12 The Artemis Accords 122
13 Towards a Regime of Space Traffic Management? 124
14 Conclusion 127
8 Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space: Challenges in Governance 129
Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan
1 Introduction 129
2 Changing Space Environment 130
3 Counterspace Capabilities 131
4 Electronic and Cyber Warfare Capabilities 133
4.1 Electronic Warfare Capabilities 133
4.2 Cyber Warfare Capabilities 135
5 Current Global Governance Measures 137
6 Possible Pathways for the Future 139
9 Arms Control in Outer Space: Solving the Impasse – The ‘Göttingen Treaty’ Proposal Revisited 141
Jürgen Scheffran
1 The New Space Race and the Need for Regulation 141
2 Dual-Use and the Militarization of the Space Frontier 142
3 Risk Reduction, Confidence Building and Rules in Space 145
4 International Space Law: Peaceful Purposes and Preventing an Arms Race 146
4.1 The Framework of International Space Law 146
4.2 Initiatives Against an Arms Race in Space 148
4.3 Comparative Classification of Options for Space Arms Control 149
5 The Göttingen Draft Treaty 150
5.1 Principles 151
5.2 Definitions 152
5.3 Anti-Satellite Weapons 153
5.4 Space-Based Weapons 155
5.5 Military Use of Satellites 155
6 Verification of Space Arms Control 157
6.1 Conditions, Requirements and Means of Verification 157
6.2 Verification and Risk of the Göttingen Draft Treaty 158
6.3 Summary and Evaluation 160
7 Alternative Approaches to Space Arms Control 162
7.1 Partial Arms Control in Space 162
7.2 International Control of Ballistic Missiles and Missile Defences 164
7.3 Evolving Diplomatic Initiatives on Space Security and Arms Control 165
7.3.1 EU Code of Conduct for Outer Space 165
7.3.2 Chinese-Russian Draft Treaty Against Space Weapons 165
7.3.3 Canadian Proposals on the Non-Weaponization of Space 166
7.3.4 Groups of Governmental Experts on Space Security 166
8 Common Security and Sustainable Peace in Outer Space 166
8.1 The Changing Landscape of Space Security 166
8.2 Common Security in Outer Space 167
8.3 Solving the Impasse: The Role of Citizens, Scientists and the Public 169
9 Appendix: Proposed Draft Treaty on the Limitation of the Military Use of Outer Space 170
10 Space Traffic Management – Looking at the Operational Realities of a Wicked Problem 175
Marc Becker
1 Introduction 175
2 Definitions and Main Concepts of STM 176
3 The Changing Space Environment as a Driver for STM 180
4 Operational Aspects and Practical Realities of STM 182
5 Current Approaches to SST and STM in the United States and Europe 186
6 Conclusion and Perspective 189
11 Space Debris: Technical Aspects 191
Carsten Wiedemann, Andre Horstmann, Lorenz Böttcher, Kerstin Soggeberg, Eduard
Gamper, Jürgen Lorenz, Manuel Schubert and Enrico Stoll
1 Introduction 191
2 Methods 192
3 Scientific Background 193
4 The Space Debris Environment 194
4.1 Fragments 196
4.2 Solid Rocket Motor Slag 196
4.3 Sodium-Potassium Droplets 197
4.4 Multilayer Insulation 197
4.5 Ejecta and Paint Flakes 198
4.6 The Dynamics of Space Debris 198
4.7 Centimetre Population 199
4.8 Risk of Space Debris 201
4.9 Deliberate Satellite Destructions 204
5 Satellite Constellations 206
5.1 Cosmos-Iridium Collision 206
5.2 Orbital Altitudes of Mega-Constellations 207
5.3 Stability of Mega-Constellations 209
6 Summary 211
12 Oceanic Dumping of Space Objects and the Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 213
Vito De Lucia
1 Introduction 213
2 The Re-Entry of the MIR Station 214
2.1 The MIR Splashdown 214
2.2 The RIO Group Concerns 217
3 Space Debris and Splashdowns in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 221
3.1 The ‘Spacecraft Cemetery’ and the Practice of Splashdowns in the South Pacific 221
3.2 Knowledge Gaps and Environmental Impact Assessment Under Space Law 224
4 The Obligation to Assess the Impact of Splashdowns Under International Law of the Sea 226
4.1 Introduction 226
4.2 The General Framework for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 227
4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment 230
5 Splashdowns and the Process Towards a New Treaty on Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 234
5.1 The BBNJ Process in Brief 234
5.2 EIAs in the BBNJ Process 235
6 Conclusions 238
13 Commercial Space Launches and Depletion of the Ozone Layer: Emergent Issues 239
Ruwantissa Abeyratne
1 Introduction 239
2 The Ozone Layer and Its Nuances 243
3 International Principles of Accountability 246
4 International Treaties 252
5 Balancing Two Considerations 256
5.1 Healthy Environment 256
5.2 The Polluter Pays Principle 258
6 Conclusion 262
14 Satellite Constellations and Orbital Pollution – Need for New Policies and Regulations 267
Ram S. Jakhu, Joseph N. Pelton and Nishith Mishra
1 Introduction 267
2 The Particular Risk Presented by Large-Scale Satellite Constellation 270
3 An Evolving System of Global Space Governance and Regulations to Tackle the Challenges of this Century 273
4 New and Improved Efforts to Tackle the ‘Orbital Pollution’ Issue 276
4.1 Space Situational Awareness 277
4.2 Space Traffic Management and Satellite Constellations 278
4.3 On-Orbit Servicing and Active Debris Removal 281
4.4 Consideration of Other Forms of Orbital Pollution 283
4.4.1 Light Pollution 283
4.4.2 Radio Frequency Interference 288
4.4.3 Ozone Depletion 288
5 New Regulation, Best Practices and Legal Reforms to Address the Orbital Pollution and Other Forms of ‘Orbital Pollution’ 289
5.1 Key Elements of Proposed Amendments to the Space Law Treaties and Improving Functionality of Soft Law Instruments 289
5.2 Basic Elements of a Global Fund for Orbital Debris Removal 292
5.3 Protections and Regulatory Processes Related to Cyber-Attacks, Military Uses of Space and Light Pollution 293
6 Conclusion 294
7 Appendix 296
15 Dream of the Stars – The Benefits of Nuclear Power and Propulsion 305
Gary L. Bennett
1 Introduction 305
2 Generic Nuclear Power Sources 307
3 Historical Use of Nuclear Power in Space 309
3.1 U.S. Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Space 309
3.2 Other Uses of Nuclear Power Sources in Space 314
4 Nuclear Propulsion in Space 316
4.1 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion in Space 316
4.2 Nuclear Electric Propulsion in Space 319
5 Advanced Space Propulsion Candidates 321
6 International Aspects of the Use of Nuclear Power in Space 323
7 To the Stars 325
16 Nuclear Technologies in Future Space Exploration and Questions of Environmental Law 327
Ulrike M. Bohlmann and Matija RenČelj
1 Introduction 327
1.1 History of Use 328
1.2 History of International Regulation 329
2 International Regulatory Outlook and National Developments 335
2.1 Nuclear Power Sources in International Fora 335
2.2 National Regulations 337
2.2.1 Regulation in the United States 338
2.2.2 Regulation in the Russian Federation 341
2.2.3 Regulation in China 342
2.2.4 Regulation in Europe 343
2.2.5 Regulation in India 345
3 Future Use of NPS Through the Prism of International Environmental Law 345
3.1 Applicability of Principles of International Environmental Law to Outer Space 345
3.2 Interaction Between Regulation of NPS and International Environmental Law 347
3.2.1 Obligation Not to Cause Transboundary Harm 347
3.2.2 Principle of Preventive Action 349
3.2.3 Principle of Cooperation 350
3.2.4 Precautionary Principle 350
3.2.5 Polluter Pays 351
3.3 Lack of Development 352
4 Future Developments 353
4.1 Use of Nuclear Reactors in Earth Orbit and Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (“NTP”) 353
4.2 RPS Technology in Deep-Space Missions and on Surface Rovers 355
4.3 Use of Reactors on Surface Missions 356
5 Conclusions and Recommendations 358
5.1 Conclusions 358
5.2 Recommendations 359
17 NewSpace and National Space Legislation 361
Ingo Baumann and Erik Pellander
1 Introduction 361
2 Impact of NewSpace on National Legislators 362
3 Countries Which Have Developed National Space Legislation in Response to Newspace 363
3.1 Finland 363
3.2 Luxembourg 364
3.3 Portugal 365
3.4 New Zealand 367
3.5 United Arab Emirates 368
4 Countries Which are Currently Developing National Space Legislation in Response to Newspace 369
4.1 Germany 370
4.2 India 371
5 Countries Adapting National Space Legislation in Response to NewSpace 373
5.1 Australia 373
5.2 United Kingdom 374
5.3 United States 377
5.3.1 FAA 377
5.3.2 FCC 379
5.3.3 NOAA 381
5.3.4 Other (New)Space Activities 382
6 Selected Elements of National Space Law in the Light of NewSpace 384
6.1 Material Scope 384
6.2 Personal and Territorial Scope 385
6.3 Scope of a Single Licence 386
6.4 Duration of the Licencing Procedure 386
6.5 Licencing Fees 387
6.6 Technical, Professional and Financial Capacity 388
6.7 Liability and Insurance 388
6.8 Space Debris Mitigation 389
7 Summary and Conclusions 390
18 State Responsibility Facing the Growing Diversity of Space Projects and Actors – The Case of Satellite Deployment from an International Space Station 393
Setsuko Aoki
1 Introduction: The Age of Growing Diversity of Space Projects and Actors 393
2 Legal Issues Concerning the Deployment of Satellites from the International Space Station 394
2.1 Background 394
2.2 Legal Issues 396
3 State Practice in Case of Satellite Deployment from the ISS/Kibo 398
3.1 Methodology of Analysis 398
3.2 National Space Legislation 399
3.2.1 USA and Japan 399
3.2.2 Definition of ‘Launch’ in Other National Space Legislation 401
3.3 Practice of Japan and the US 402
3.3.1 Mission Description 402
3.3.2 Registration Data of Japan and the US 404
3.3.3 Registration Manual of Japan 405
3.3.4 No Criterion on the Place of ‘Launch’ 406
3.4 State Practice of Relevant States 407
3.5 Russian Practice 409
4 Conclusion 410
Part III George Robinson the Inspirer
19 About George S. Robinson (1937-2018) 415
Stephen E. Doyle
20 Cybernetics – Space Law and Cyberlaw as Tools for Mediating Interspecies Communication with Technological Transhumans and Posthumans 423
George S. Robinson and P.J. Blount
1 Introduction 423
2 Life and Cybernetics 425
2.1 Cybernetics 425
2.2 Interface 428
2.3 Cybernetic Development 430
3 Transhumanism and Posthumanism 431
3.1 Governance 433
3.2 Cyberspace Governance and Law 433
3.3 Space Law and Metalaw 437
4 Conclusion 445
About the Authors and Editors 447
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